Appendix:Sanskrit verbs

In Sanskrit language, verbs are formed using roots. A root is a fundamental word to which some "process" is applied and an "ending" is added to resultant "stem", thus enabling the formation of a verb.

The original roots are divided into 10 classes with varying number of roots in each class. Overall, there are around 2000 original roots in Sanskrit language. Thus, at least around 2000 verbs can easily be formed. However, there are 22 prefixes as well, and addition of prefixes to the roots may alter, enhance or differ the meaning of the root; thus innumerable number of verbs can be formed.

Further, in Sanskrit, verbs are conjugated depending upon

• voice (active, middle, passive),
• number (singular, dual, plural),
• person (first, second, third),
• tense/mood/aspect (usually, ten types)
• kind of verb, etc.

Thus, there can be millions conjugated verb forms in Sanskrit.

Classification of verbs

Sanskrit verbs can be divided into different types based on following criteria:

Based on kind

1. Primitive verbs - These are the verbs that are formed from the original roots. They have no sub-varieties. They are most commonly used verbs.
2. Derived verbs - These are the verbs which are derived from original roots or nouns. They have some sub-varieties like, Causals (Causatives), Desideratives, Frequentatives (Intensitives), and Denominatives (Nominals). More info on them is given below. Barring causative and denomintive sub-varieties, Derived verbs are hardly used.

Primitive verbs are divided into ten classes, depending on the root that forms them. Furthermore, there are two groups within this division: a) 1st, 4th, 6th and 10th class; b) 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 8th and 9th class.

Derived verbs may be derived from any root belonging to any class. In short, they belong to the class to which the original root belongs.

Voice

In Sanskrit, grammatical voice is called प्रयोग (prayoga). The two major types of voices are:

1. Active voice - कर्तरि प्रयोग (kartari prayoga)
2. Passive voice

Active voice

Active voice is the most commonly used voice in Sanskrit, wherein the verb is dependent on the subject of the sentence. For instance, in the sentence "रामः वयं भक्षति (Rama eats the barley)", the subject रामः is in third person singular form, so even the verb भक्षति has been formed using the ending of third person singular form.

Passive voice

Passive voice is also often used. It is divided into two varieties:

1. Passive - कर्मणि प्रयोग (karmaṇi prayoga) Here, the verb follows the object in the sentence. For instance, in the sentence रामेण वयः भक्ष्यते (The barley is eaten by Rama), the verb भक्ष्यते is in passive form following the third person singular object of "barley".
2. Reflexive - कर्मकर्तरि प्रयोग (karmakartari prayoga) For instance, वयः पच्यते (The barley is cooked).

Another type of voice in Sanskrit. is impersonal voice (भावे प्रयोग (bhāve prayoga)). Even though it is a Voice apart, is often considered to be a third type of Passive voice. For example, गम्यते (it is gone).

Tenses and mood

There are ten tenses and moods in Sanskrit grammar, out of which there are 6 tenses and 4 moods. They are:

1. लट् (laṭ) ― वर्तमान (vartamāna) ― Present
2. लिट् (liṭ) ― परोक्षभूत (parokṣabhūta) ― Perfect Past
3. लुट् (luṭ) ― अनद्यतनभविष्य (anadyatanabhaviṣya) ― Periphrastic Future (1st future)
4. लृट् (lṛṭ) ― भविष्य (bhaviṣya) ― Simple Future (2nd future)
5. लोट् (loṭ) ― आज्ञा (ājñā) ― Imperative mood
6. लङ् (laṅ) ― अनद्यतनभूत (anadyatanabhūta) ― Imperfect Past
7. आशीर्लिङ् (āśīrliṅ) ― आशीष (āśīṣa) ― Benedictive mood
8. विधिलिङ् (vidhiliṅ) ― विधि (vidhi) ― Potential mood (optative mood)
9. लुङ् (luṅ) ― भूत (bhūta) ― Aorist Past (Simple Past)
10. लृङ् (lṛṅ) ― सङ्केत (saṅketa) ― Conditional mood

Mood

There are four moods in Sanskrit language. The most commonly used are Imperative mood and Potential mood. Benedictive and Conditional mood are used less often.

लोट् (Imperative mood)

Imperative mood indicates predominantly "command". However, it may also point out entreaty, gentle inquiry, etc.

विधिलिङ् (Potential mood)

Potential mood indicates predominantly "command" and "invitation". However, it may also point out "giving permission, asking a question, etc.".

आशीर्लिङ् (Benedictive mood)

Benedictive mood indicates predominantly "blessing". However, it may also be used "to express the speaker's wish".

लृङ् (Conditional mood)

Conditional mood indicates predominantly "condition". However, it may also be used "to indicate a past or future action, etc.".

When analyzing cause & effect, if some action doesn't happens or fails to happen, that is, an action doesn't take place, then in case of such past tense, Conditional mood is used. This mood is also used in case of future tense in situations like "If this would have happened, that would happen".

For example, "If you would have become a doctor, you would get happiness." The conditional mood will be used as follows: यदि त्वं चिकित्सकः अभविष्यः तर्हि सुखं प्राप्स्यः। Here, the verbs अभविष्यः (abhaviṣyaḥ) and प्राप्स्यः (prāpsyaḥ) are conjugated in conditional mood.

Another example is, "If good rain would have happened, then good crops would grow." The conditional mood will be used as follows: सुवृष्टिः चेत् अभविष्यत् तर्हि सुभिक्षः अभविष्यत्। Here, the verbs अभविष्यत् (abhaviṣyat) and अभविष्यत् (abhaviṣyat) are conjugated in conditional mood.

Some examples of conditional mood from Hindi to Sanskrit are as follows:

यदि वह कच्चा कैथा खाता तो कफ न होता। = यदि असौ आम-कपित्थम् अभक्षयिष्यत् तर्हि कफः न अभविष्यत्।

यदि तुम कैथा खाते तो हिचकी ठीक हो जाती। = यदि त्वं दधित्थम् अभक्षयिष्यः तर्हि हिक्का सुष्ठु अभविष्यत्।

यदि वे पके गूलर खाते तो उनका दाह ठीक हो जाता। = यदि अमी पक्वान् उदुम्बरान् अभक्षयिष्यन् तर्हि तेषां दाहः सुष्ठु अभविष्यत्।

यदि तुम गूलर खाते तो पुष्ट हो जाते। = यदि त्वं हेमदुग्धान् अभक्षयिष्यः तर्हि पुष्टः अभविष्यः।

तुम सब यदि नींबू खाते तो मुँह में दुर्गन्ध न होती। = यूयं यदि जम्भलम् अभक्षयिष्यत तर्हि मुखे दुर्गन्धः न अभविष्यत्।

यदि मैं नींबू खाता तो मन्दाग्नि न होती। = यदि अहं जम्बीरम् अभक्षयिष्यम् तर्हि मन्दाग्निः न अभविष्यत्।

यदि तुम दोनों भी नींबू खाते तो हृदयशूल न होता। = यदि युवाम् अपि रेवतम् अभक्षयिष्यतम् तर्हि हृदयशूलः न अभविष्यत्।

यदि हम दोनों खेत में होते तो कैथे खाते। = यदि आवां क्षेत्रे अभविष्याव तर्हि दधिफलान् अभक्षयिष्याव।

हम सब वहाँ होते तो गूलर खाते। = वयं तत्र अभविष्याम तर्हि जन्तुफलान् अभक्षयिष्याम।

तुम होते तो तुम भी खाते। = त्वम् अभविष्यः तर्हि त्वम् अपि अभक्षयिष्यः।

श्लोक : अभक्षयिष्यं यदि दुग्धदाधिकं घृतं रसालं ह्यपि हेमभस्मकम्। बताभविष्यं न कदापि दुर्बलः यथा त्विदानीं तनुविग्रहोऽभवम्॥

यदि मैंने दूध-लस्सी, घी, रसीले आम और सुवर्णभस्म खाया होता तो हाय ! मैं कभी दुर्बल न होता जैसे आज सुखड़े शरीर वाला मैं हो गया हूँ।