Appendix:Proto-Hokan reconstructions

This appendix contains Proto-Hokan reconstructions by Kaufman (2015).

Note that Hokan is not universally accepted by all linguists. Some linguists consider Hokan to be a linguistic area (Sprachbund) or linkage rather than a a bona fide language family of truly related languages.

Kaufman (2015)

Key

Reconstructions are marked with # since they are preliminary.

Aspirated or glottalized consonants:

• [?glott/asp]: languages that an etymon survives in do not have aspirated or glottalized consonants
• [?asp]: languages that an etymon survives in do not have aspirated consonants

Distribution:

NC	Northern California	Chimariko, Yana, Karuk, Shasta-Okwanchu-Konomihu, Achumawi-Atsugewi
C	Central California Coast	Salina, Esalen
N	Northern languages	any of the previous languages and/or Pomo, Washu
SW	Southwest	Yuman-Cochimi, Seri
TM	Texas and Northeast Mexico	Pajalat [Coahuilteco], Yeméan-Yué [Comecrudoan-Cotoname]
MA	Mesoamerica	Chontal, Tol
S	Southern languages	any of the non-Northern languages

Syllable structure

• #CV(H)CV*(ː)[CV(ː)](C)
• #([C(x)]V[H])$C(x/w)V(H)(Y)(C)$(+CV)

Function words

Proto-Hokan	English gloss	distribution	notes	see also/other notes
#ZERO	‘third person’	[N/S]
#ha	‘third person pronoun (marker)	[N/S]
#mi ~ #ma	‘second person pronoun marker’	[N/S]
#nyi	‘second person singular pronoun marker’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#nya [gen] ~ #nyi [N]	‘first person singular pronoun marker’	[N/S]
#¢cV	‘first person singular pronoun marker’	[N/S]	[¢ ~ č]
#Ha	‘first person singular/plural pronoun marker (exclusive?)’	[N/S]
#lye	‘first person singular/plural pronoun marker’	[N/S]
#KV	‘first person plural pronoun marker (inclusive?)’	[N/S]
#qhV	‘second person plural pronoun marker’ (same as #KV?)	[N]
#ma	free particle, ‘reciprocal; reflexive (+/- possessive)’	[N/S]		(< #maky’ ~ #ma(L) ‘back’ and/or #mat ‘body’)
#i	‘this’	[N]
#i	‘first person singular pronoun marker’	[NC]
#sV	*demonstrative
#sV	‘first person singular pronoun marker’	[NC+TM]
#sV	‘present tense marker’	[N/S]
#Ti	*demonstrative; ‘first person singular/plural pronoun marker’
#ya 1.	‘this; here’	[N/S]
#wa ~ #wi 1.	‘this; here’	[N/S]
#mE	‘this’	[N/S]
#(h)U 1.	‘yon’	[N/S]
#qa ~ #qi	‘weak demonstrative’	[N/S]
#ʔaː-	‘absolutive of intimately possessed noun’	[S]
#ʔaː-	‘substance or mass noun prefix’	[N/S]
#Hiː-	‘body-part prefix’; ‘possessed state of intimately possessed noun’	[N/S]
#kwhi-	‘indefinite third person (+/- possessive)’	[N/S]
#kwhi-	‘absolutive noun prefix’	[N/S]
#kwhi-	‘derivational noun prefix’	[S]
#p’-	‘absolutive(?) noun prefix’; ‘derivational noun prefix’	[N]
#ph(a)-	‘adjective prefix’	[N/S]
#p(a)-	‘adjective prefix’	[N/?S]
#ṭ-	‘proclitic article’; ‘absolutive noun prefix’; ‘derivational noun prefix’	[N]
#ṭ(a)-	‘adjective prefix’	[N]
#ly-	‘proclitic count noun article’	[S]
#ly-	absolutive noun prefix	[N]
#ly-	derivational noun prefix	[N]
#l-	proclitic mass/plural noun article	[S]
#l-	absolutive noun prefix
#l-	derivational noun prefix	[N]
#La	‘*demonstrative’
#La	third person singular/plural pronoun marker	[N/S]
#č-	derivational (?) noun prefix	[N/S]
#Ch-	derivational noun prefix	[N/?S]
#ši-	derivational (?) noun prefix	[N/S]
#-ly	derivational noun suffix	[N/S]
#-Na	absolutive noun suffix	[N]		Could be the same as #nya
#nya	‘demonstrativeː location unspecified’	[N/S]
#pA ~ #pi	weak demonstrative	[S]
#pA ~ #pi	definite article	[N]
#pA ~ #pi	absolutive suffix	Kar, Esa
#ta	weak demonstrative; third person pronoun marker	[N/S]
#ta	definite article	[N]
#ta	absolutive suffix	Kar, Esa
#sa	‘yon’	[S]
#si	‘present/future tense’	[N/S]
#hE	weak demonstrative; definite article	[N]
#hE	absolutive suffix	Yahi
#-č’i	‘diminutive noun’	[N/S]
#-La	‘diminutive noun’	[N]	[?*ly]
#+ʔ0-a	‘female noun’	[NC]
#-yaw	‘verb --> noun’	[N]
#-uː	‘verb --> noun’	[S]
#-K	‘same subject’	[S]
#-m	‘different subject’	[S]
#+(ʔ)a	‘vocative’	[N/S]
#-ky	‘adjective suffix’	[N/S]
#-aRa	‘noun --> adjective’	[NC]
#K	‘plural pronoun marker; noun plural marker’ (mostly postposed)	[N/S]
#-š(i)	‘dual and plural of noun/pronoun’	[N]
#-wi	‘dual and plural of noun/pronoun/demonstrative’	[N]	[i ~ a]
#-lye	‘plural of noun/adjective/stative’	[N/S]
#n	‘floating pluralizer’	[N/S]
#mina	‘back; behind’	[NC]
#iThi	‘down; bottom’	[N/S]
#=(ʔ)uL	‘down’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#=Ri	‘up’	[N]
#=ča	‘up’	[N/S]	[a ~ o] (weak set)
#=ema	‘into’	[NC]
#=ta	‘out’	[NC]
#=low	‘apart, out’	[NC]
#=wV	‘thither, towards there’	[N/S]	[w ~ m]
#-uky	‘hither’	[N/S]
#=PiL	‘here and there’	[N]	[p ~ p’]
#=KaL	‘into one’s mouth’	[N]
#Ca	‘away’	[N]	adv/dir
#sa	‘through’	[N]	[s ~ š] adv/dir
#mi(y)	‘to the side’	[N/S]	[i ~ a] adv/dir
#ma(L)	‘back; after’	[N/S]	[l ~ n] adv/dir (< ‘*back’)
#(i)yow	‘down’	[N/S]	adv/dir (#i is *Hiː-)
#ri	‘down’	[N]	adv/dir
#=taN	‘down’	[NC]	[t ~ ṭ] adv/dir
#=KuLV	‘into’	[NC]	[l ~ n] adv/dir
#px̣uLu	‘into the house’	[NC]	[l ~ n] or #fuLu adv/dir	The former accounts for Chi, Kar. The latter accounts for Yan, Ach, ?Kar. It does not seem feasible to combine all these. Perhaps #xwuLu would account for all of them, but *xw is not known to occur before rounded vowels.
#-lu	‘by means of (instrument)’	[N]	[l ~ n] loc case
#-awA	‘from’	[N]	[a ~ o] loc case
#-a	‘at’	[N]	loc case
#-ly(a)	‘in(to)’	[N/S]	loc case
#-ša	‘(with)in’	[N]	[a ~ o] loc case
#Ki	‘at’	[N/S]	adv/case/prep
#x̣aK’a	‘together’	[N]	adv/case
#(i)mE	‘out (from); away (from)’	[N/S]	adv/case (#i is *Hiː-)
#aypV	‘away’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp] adv/case
#+(i)ma	‘with (instrument and accompaniment)’	[N/S]	*adv/case/dir (#i is *Hiː-)
#+yey	‘with, by means of’	[N]	*adv/case/dir (?#y1 = *Hiː-)
#+yV	‘in’	[N/S]	*adv/case/dir (?#y = *Hiː-)
#Iwi	‘on (top), above’	[N]	[i ~ a] adv/case/dir	Related to words for ‘*mountain’.
#K’a	‘near’	[N/S]	adv/case/dir
#K’a(m)	‘toward, hither’	[N]	adv/case/dir
#+an	‘toward’	[N]	[n ~ l] *adv/case/dir
#ma	‘thither, there, elsewhere’	[N/S]	adv/case/dir
#nya	‘when, while, after’	[N/S]	free particle
#(i)ny(i)+	subordinator	[N/S]
#Ka-	‘imperative/future’	[N/S]		This is related to #Kam free preposed particle ‘future’
#Kam	‘future’	[S]	free preposed particle
#Pa-	‘plural (human) object’	[S]	[?glott/asp]
#m-	‘plural verb’	[N]
#-iʔi	‘infinitive’	[N/S]	[i2 ~ a]
#-ṭA	‘agentive’	[N/S]
#-p	‘passive’	[N/S]	[?asp]
#-Tu	‘go and VERB’	[N]
#-iL	‘go and VERB’	[N]	[i ~ a]
#-la	‘imperative’	[N/S]
#-i	‘present/imperative’	[N]		(= demonstrative #i ‘this/here’)
#-s(i)	‘present/future/same time’	[N/S]
#-xyA	‘future/optative’	[N/S]	[xy ~ x̣x]
#-a	‘past/aorist’	[N]
#-aT’	‘completive’	[N/S]
#-nI	‘remote past’	[N]	[?n ~ l]
#-phi	‘hypothetical/if’	[N]	[i ~ a] (*ph or *px̣)
#-ta	‘desiderative/polite imperative’	[N/S]
#-lye	‘conditional/would’	[N/S]
#-kyi	(function unclearː seems to have many developments; completive/past/preterit is the most common)	[N/S]
#+n	‘imperative enclitic’	[N]
#+ma	‘customary’	[N]
#+(a)yu	‘again/repeated/habitual’	[N/S]
#Hipa	‘in the past’	[N]	free particle
#m(a)-	‘stative/static (adjective/intransitive)’	[N/S]
#qV-	‘stative/static (intransitive/adjective)’	[N/S]
#sV-	‘transitive (causative)	[N/S]	(weak set)
#aː-	‘instrumental/causative’	[SW]
#K-	‘instrumental/causative	[SW ?+Wsh]
#pa-	‘transitive/active’	[N/S]
#ta=	‘causative’	[N/S]	(= tv *’to make, do’)
#Pa=	‘with the mouth’	[N/?S]	(< *’to say; shout’).
#kya=	‘by speech’	[N/S]	‘by speech’	(< *’to speak, talk’)
#kya=now	‘to talk; tell’	[N/S]
#qa=	‘by biting/chewing, with teeth/jaws’	[N]	[Chi q’]
#¢ca=	‘with the mouth/teeth’	[N/S]	[¢ ~ č]	(< *‘to bite’)
#px̣u=	‘by blowing’	[N]	(< *‘to blow’)
#mi= ~ #ma=	‘with the foot’	[N]	(< *‘foot’)
#pew=	‘with the foot’	[N]	(< *‘foot’)
#is=	‘with the hand’	[N/S]	(< *‘to take, hold, bring’)
#tu=	‘with the hand’	[N]	Not derived from any known noun or verb root.
#-aː	‘to do X times’	[SW]	numeral --> verb
#-(h)i	‘to do X’	[N]	noun --> verb
#-ni	‘adjectival; durative/intransitive/static’	[N]
#ma	‘*person; who?’	[N/S]		See #tama ‘man; people’
#am ~ #aw	‘*something; who?; what?’	[S/?N]		(?same as #ma)
#(a)čhi	‘thing; what?’	[N/S]
#Lu	‘where?’	[N/S]	[l ~ n] (fairly weak set)
#kya	‘general interrogative’	[N/S]
#kyi	‘general interrogative’	[N]
#Ku	‘general interrogative’	[N]		(?= *kyu)
#xya	‘general interrogative’	[N/S]	[a ~ o] (fairly weak set)
#-n	‘interrogative suffix (?on verbs)’	[N/S]
#maː	‘negative’	[N/S]
#kyhu(wa)	‘negative’	[N/S]
#(a)x̣u	‘negative’	[N/S]
#sey	‘negative’	[N/S]
#T’V	‘negative’	[N/S]	(weak set)
#pa	‘negative’	[NC ?+Yum]	[a ~ o]
#Ka	‘perhaps’	[MA]
#+kyh(i)	‘emphasis (especially with pronouns)’	[N]
#+pa	‘emphasis	[N/S]
#itá	‘and’	[N]
#(xi)Pu	‘first’	[N/S]
#še	‘one’	[N/S]
#pey	‘one’	[N/S]
#pha	‘one; only; alone’	[N/S]
#ky’a	‘one’	[N]
#(q-)x̣ow(a)	‘two’	[Pom, Esa, Tol]
#haqhu	‘two’	[Ach, Ats, Cho]
#(q-)x̣ow=háqhu	‘two’	[Chi, Sha, Yum]	[a ~ o] compound
#x̣a	‘first half of three’	[N]	[a ~ o]
#ma	‘second half of three’	[N]
#Xó múky’a	‘three’	[N/S]		(?#Xo = *x.a ~ *x.o; ?#ky’a = ‘*one’)
#ap=Xa	‘three’	[S]		(#Xa = *x.a ~ *x.o)
#lAP	‘three’	[Coast]
#tow	‘to count [Kar]; four [Yan, EPom]; five [Kar]’	[N]
#em+a	‘five’	[N]
#sUy	subtract one	[SW]
#laʔ(a)wa	‘little, few’	[MA]
#+kyu	‘a little; just’	[NC]

Lexicon

Proto-Hokan	English gloss	distribution	notes	see also/other notes
#aLa	‘person, tribe; husband’	[N]
#aLa	‘to sit, live, stay’	[NC]
#tama	‘man; people’	[N/S]		[Pom; s^- noun prefix]
#ewE	‘deer’	[N/S]
#aːʔ	‘deer’	[N]
#ipá	‘deer; ?body’	[N/S]		[Pom; š- noun prefix]
#ipów	‘doe; elk’	[N]	[?a > o]
#[i/a]pa	‘person; man; husband; kinsman; ?body’
#ipa	‘to be alive; be there’	[S]		?Same as #[i/a]pa ?
#[i/a]px̣a	‘person, people, tribe, race’	[N]		The relation of this form to #[i/a]pa ‘person’ cannot at present be explained.
#apí	‘meat’	[MA]
#(h)iː-ši	‘meat, flesh; body’	[N/S]
#(h)iː-ši	‘person, Indian; man, male, husband’	[NC]
#iː-šey	‘skin; blanket’	[N]		This may be related to #(h)iː-ši
#[u/i]pa=ši	‘meat, flesh; body’		compound
#(i)maHṭ	‘meat, flesh; body’	[N/S]		[?asp]; Yum ‘reflexive’
#Ači	‘center, middle’	[NC]
#i-maK	‘middle’	[S]	[?glott/asp]
#(i)maky’	‘back’	[N/S]		Pom ‘reciprocal’
#ma(L)	‘back’	[N]
#mina	‘back; behind’	[NC]
#síly(i)	‘behind, rear’	[N/S]
#aš(i)	‘back’	[N/S]	[?š ~ s]
#LiK	‘back’	[S]
#(i-)Suw	‘backbone’	[NC]	[w ~ m]
#Tim	‘edge; side’	[NC]
#wesyu	‘horn’	[N]	[w ~ m]
#emV	‘horn’	[S]
#i-kwha+yV	‘horn; bird’s topknot, crest’	[N/S]
#al	‘forehead’	[N/S]		(Cho -pali)
#uly	‘forehead’	[N/S]		(pYum *mpuːly)
#piL	‘forehead’	[N/S]	[l ~ n] [?glott/asp]
#iLe	‘forehead; up(wards)’	[N]
#q’ula	‘brains’	[N]	[*q’ or *kw’]
#pha	‘brains’	[N/S]	(weak set)
#ut’a	‘head; brains’	[N]
#xyaLaw	‘brains; head’	[NC]
#(i-)La(xw) or #(i-)La(x̣u)	‘head’	[N]	[l ~ n]
#xwa	‘head’	[S]
#x̣u	‘head; head hair’	[N]
#(ya)x̣u	‘nose’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#fi or #px̣i	‘nose’	[N/S]
#yam	‘nose’	[NC]
#iːLi	‘snot; phlegm; nose; glands in throat; to blow nose’	[N]	[l ~ n]
#(i-)La	‘nose; snot’	[N/S]	[l ~ n]
#x̣elye(T)	‘hair; head’	[N/S]
#(kwh)aHwaly	‘bark; skin’	[N/S]
#pi	‘to skin; skin’	[N/S]
#i-ʔIy	‘head; hair; fur’	[N/S]
#q’uwow	‘hair’	[N/S]
#to	‘feather’	[NC]
#imI	‘body hair, fur; feather; skin’	[N/S]
#i-má(y)	‘sinew; root; body hair; head hair’	[N/S]
#i-pa (i-)ma(y)	‘sinew’		phrase or compound
#sama	‘root (+ sinew)’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#ači	‘root’	[N]	[č ~ čh]
#ašá	‘eye’	[Ach, EsaːN]	[*š or *xy]
#wiy	‘eye’	[N/S]
#(e)wíy	‘to look (for, at)’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#[u/i]-0-íw	‘eye; face’	[N/S]
#0-iw=x̣aʔ	‘tears’		[x̣ ~ xy] compound (= *"eye water")
#ʔu	‘to see’	[SW ?+Cho ‘eye’]
#imá	‘to see; look; find’	[N/S]
#ma(s)	‘face; forehead’	[N]	[s ~ š; a ~ o]
#iTi	‘to look’	[NC]
#aP	‘to look for’	[NC]
#miC’i	‘to blink’	[NC]
#kweyá	‘to hear’	[N/S]
#Tew	‘ear; to hear’	[N]
#[i/a]-ma-ly(-Ku)	‘ear; to hear’		[ly ~ ny]
#i-sa	‘ear’	[Sha, Ach, SerːN/S]
#i-sa-má	‘ear’	[N/S]
#q’o(y)	‘neck; throat; to swallow’	[N/S]
#ni	‘throat’	[Sal, AchːN]
#ti	‘shoulder’	[N]
#[iː/u]-pu(K)	‘nape; neck; shoulder; arm’
#mi(y)=puK	‘knee; thigh’		[i ~ a] compound
#pha	‘strong’	[NC]
#Pam	‘arm; hands’	[NC]	[?asp]
#px̣aL	‘shoulder; arm; knee’	[N/S]
#phuruC’i	‘knee’	[NC]
#moqHo	‘knee’	[N]	[qh ~ q’]
#...tul	‘joint; knee’	[N/S]	[l ~ n]
#pA¢a	‘knee; leg’		[?asp]
#ax̣	‘to yawn’	[N/S]
#Tams...	‘to yawn’		[s ~ ¢]
#(a-)ha	‘mouth’	[N/S]
#(a)ha	‘to open mouth; yawn’	[NC]
#(h)aːwa	‘mouth’	[N]
#aphu	‘mouth’	[NC]
#=KaL	‘into one’s mouth’		incorp dir
#pa	‘to shout, holler, call; speak, say’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#Pa=	‘with the mouth’	[N/?S]	incorp prepound
#ifu	‘to cry; mourn’	[N]
#wa	‘to cry’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#wo&wo	‘to bark’	[N/S]	(?= *’to cry’ + reduplication)
#wa¢	‘to shout’	[NC]
#x̣a	‘to weep, cry’	[N/S]
#mi	‘to weep, cry, shout’	[N/S]
#qow	‘to shout’	[N/S]
#(aː)si	‘name; to name’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#(o)sí	‘to count’	[S]	[s ~ š]
#isí	‘to say’	[N]
#(i)ṭi	‘to say, tell’	[N]	[ṭ ~ ṭh]
#áʔi	‘to speak; say’	[N/S]
#iky’a	‘to say; talk’	[N]	[a ~ o]
#kwa	‘to talk; say’	[S]	[a ~ o]
#Ney	‘to say, tell’	[N/S]
#Ley	‘to speak’	[S]
#kya	‘to speak, talk; by speech’	[N/S]	(incorp prepound)
#kya=now	‘to talk; tell’	[N/S]
#ya(ː)	‘to speak; tell’	[N]
#yaN	‘throat’	[N/S]
#CHan	‘to speechify’	[N]	[Ch ~ C’]
#Lif	‘lip’	[N/S]
#ipawa	‘tongue’	[NC]
#[i/a]-pály	‘tongue’	[N/S]	[ly ~ ny]
#pely	‘to lick’		[ly ~ ny]
#hen	‘to lick’	[NC]
#Pal	‘cheek’		[p ~ p’]
#šuʔ	‘chest; breast’	[N]
#¢co¢’	‘breast’	[MA]
#šiʔlya	‘breast(s); milk’	[N]	[a ~ o]
#i¢hi	‘breast; milk’	[N/S]
#uc/hi	‘breast; milk’	[NC]
#[i/a]¢í(¢)	‘to suck’	[N/S]	[¢ ~ č] [?asp; probably *¢h]
#(p)x̣u(y)	‘to whistle’	[N/S]
#x̣u	‘to blow’	[N]
#(i)px̣ú	‘to blow’	[N/S]
#px̣u=	‘by blowing’	[N]	incorp prepound
#px̣uš	‘to blow’	[N/S]
#phusuː(l)	‘to blow’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#[U/a]-pis	‘to suck, smoke; tobacco, cigarette, pipe’	[N/S]
#isa	‘to breathe; sigh’	[N]	[s ~ š] (weak)
#(a-/?mi-)saːky(=i(T))	‘rib; lungs’	[N/S]
#paːra+wi	‘ribs’	[N/S]
#ša	‘rib’	[S/?N]	[š ~ s]
#i/a-sí	‘to drink’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]	(Yan, Sha, Ats /c/ due to influence of word for ‘water’ and perhaps also ‘to suck’)
#iméʔ	‘to drink’	[N/S]
#lyuH	‘to drink; sip’	[N/S]
#aː-xyáʔ	‘water’	[N/S]
#i-xyaʔ	‘juice’	[N/S]
#0-iw=x̣aʔ	‘tears’	[N/S]	[x̣ ~ xy] compound (= *"eye water")
#Xáʔ+la	‘damp, wet’	[N/S]
#foly	‘wet’	[S]
#yuH	‘to vomit; spit’	[N/S]
#yuHq	‘to vomit’	[N/S]
#qx̣et’	‘to spit’	[N]
#hay	‘to spit (out)’	[NC]
#i-mí	‘foot; with the foot’	[N/S]	(incorp instrument)
#ma(y)	‘foot, footstep, track; with the foot’
#xya-ma	‘foot, footstep, track’	[N]
#miː=wily	‘thigh’	[N/S]	[ly ~ ny] compound (= *"foot belly")
#yo=wi(ly)	‘thigh’	[N/S]	?compound (?= *"X belly")
#LaL	‘foot’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#pew	‘foot; with the foot (incorp instrument); to step’	[N/S]	[Chi /ph/]
#Ku	‘leg, foot’	[N/S]	[*q or *kw]
#sey	‘foot, leg’	[N]
#Pa...	‘hips’	[N]
#(iː-)px̣u(y)	‘fat, grease’	[N/S]
#éya	‘liver’	[S]
#fusi	‘liver’	[N/S]
#č-eya=fusi	‘liver’	[Sha, OkwːNC]	compound
#uwa	‘liver’	[AchːNC]
#uwa=fusi	‘liver’	[Ats, KarːNC]	compound
#ima	‘liver; heart’	[N]
#maš	‘heart’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#saHmaH	‘heart’		[s ~ š]
#(X)ása(L)	‘heart’	[N/S]	[á ~ o; l ~ n]
#i-waHy ~ #yaHy	‘heart’	[N/S]		cf. #uwa ‘liver’
#iC-wa(ːy)	‘chest’	[NC]	[¢ ~ č]
#Cuqu(N)	‘heart’	[N]	[n ~ l]
#(ʔ)qUw(L)	‘belly; guts’	[N/S]	[?u ~ a]
#[i/u]qhá	‘belly’	[N]
#(a-)lyafu	‘navel’	[N/S]	[ly ~ ny; a1 ~ o]
#i-ʔip	‘navel’	[N/S]
#wily	‘belly; groin’	[N/S]
#miː=wily	‘thigh’	[N/S]	compound (= *"foot belly")
#yo=wi(ly)	‘thigh’	[N/S]	?compound (?= *"X belly")
#[I/a]-ṭu	‘belly, stomach; navel; guts’	[N/S]
#PiN	‘belly’	[N]
#(i-)pheṭ	‘to fart; skunk’	[N]
#phIš	‘to fart; skunk’	[N/S]
#phi...	‘to fart’	[NC]
#i-px̣a	‘guts’	[N/S]
#a-px̣a	‘shit’	[N/S]
#waqx̣	‘to shit’	[N/S]
#(i-)čére(q)	‘(to) shit; dirt(y)’	[N/S]	[r ~ l ~ n]
#phily	‘dirty’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#čaq	‘ugly, nasty’	[N/S]
#ala(y)	‘ugly, bad’	[N/S]
#ši	‘(hot like) chile’	[S]
#iky’a(y)	‘bitter, sour’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#kwha	‘bitter’	[N/S]
#(C-)ax̣a	‘gall’	[NC]
#(ky-)ax̣xa	‘bitter’	[N/S]
#qha	‘egg’	[N/S]
#yaqoly	‘ballocks’	[N]
#suly	‘ballock; penis’	[N/S]
#Si	‘penis’	[NC]
#i/a-pEs	‘vagina’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#wi¢	‘vulva’	[NC]	[i ~ a]
#wey	‘vagina’	[N/S]
#wi	‘buttocks’	[N/S]
#pi	‘buttocks’	[S]		cf. Paj /piː/ ‘fornication’.
#[i/a]-px̣u	‘buttocks’	[NC]
#mAL	‘sexual organs’	[TM]
#(h)u¢(a)	‘to fuck’	[NC]
#su	‘to piss’	[N/S]	[s ~ ¢]
#iHpwa	‘tail’	[N/S]
#[i/a]-p’uL	‘tail’	[N]	[l ~ n]
#0-0u	‘to be’	[N/S]
#(a)¢i	‘to be (singular inanimate); sit’	[N]	[¢ ~ č] [?asp]
#iːKeL	‘to sit (singular), be’	[N]
#(i)na	‘to sit (animate dual), live, be’	[N]
#Lu	‘to sit (plural), dwell’	[N]
#ču	‘to sit, dwell, lie on ground’	[NC]
#K’uHLA	‘to sit (singular), stay, dwell’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#(a)kya	‘to sit’	[N]
#aH-kya	‘house’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(i/a-)wa	‘to sit’	[N/S]
#a/iː-wá	‘house’	[N/S]		(pPom ‘door’ goes here)
#aHma	‘house; to sit, dwell, (be a)live’	[N/?S]
#x̣u(ly)	‘door’		[*x̣ or *h]	‘door’ [MA]
#(a)wá	‘to walk, go, come’	[N/S]
#ahoː	‘to walk, run’	[NC]
#iyá	‘to go’	[N/S]
#ha	‘to go’	[N/S]
#(i)ni	‘to go’	[N/S]
#iʔpa	‘to arrive’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#ifi	‘to come’	[N/S]
#iyúː	‘to come’	[N/S]
#ey	‘to give’	[S]
#awi	‘to give’	[NC]	[?i ~ a]
#[a/i]qa	‘to give’	[N/S]	[a ~ i]
#(i-)p-áy	‘to carry’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(i)kyi*	‘to carry’	[N/S]
#áHKa	‘to carry in hand/on back’	[N]
#ky’a	‘to carry’	[S]	[a ~ o]
#aP(u)	‘to carry’	[N]
#uly	‘to carry a long object’	[N/S]
#Ila	‘to carry’	[NC]		See #iL ‘to do with the hand’.
#aL	‘to fetch; go and VERB’	[NC]
#yow	‘to take, get’	[N/S]
#is	‘to take, hold, bring; with the hand’	[N/S]	[s ~ š] (incorporated prepound)
#muːT	‘to hand’	[NC]
#[i/a]mu	‘to hold, take, carry’	[NC]
#imí	‘to bring’	[S/?N]
#ma	‘to bring, carry; hold, have’	[N/?S]
#ma	‘to give’	[S]	[a ~ o]
#ma(n)	‘hand (arm, elbow, finger)’	[N/S]
#iL	‘(to do with the) hand’	[NC]		See #Ila ‘to carry’.
#noly	‘hand; to grasp’	[S]
#i-ta(ly)	‘hand; arm; shoulder’		[*t ~ *ṭ; ly ~ ny]
#ta(n)	‘leaf’	[N]
#i-šály	‘arm; wing; shoulder’	[N/S]
#man	‘to fall’	[N/S]
#me	‘to fall’	[S]
#phey	‘to fall; lie’	[N]
#mi(ː)	‘to lie down’	[N]		May be related to #man ‘to fall’.
#(a)Pá(ː)	‘to lie down; put; fall; throw’	[N/S]
#Pat	‘to lie down; sit’	[N/S]
#Poʔ	‘to sleep’	[N/S]
#[a/i]simá	‘to sleep’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#imí	‘to sleep’		[i ~ a]
#wI	‘sleepy(ness)’	[N/S]
#AX	‘(to be) sick; (to feel) pain’	[N]
#Pa	‘to be sick; die’	[N/S]
#Po	‘to die; dead’	[NC]
#puy ~ #piy	‘to die; dead’	[S]
#q’aLa	‘to die; dead’	[Pom, KarːN]
#yum	‘dead’	[NC]
#ma	‘to die; dead’	[N/S]
#maT=Xa	‘to be thirsty’	[SW]	?compound (?< *"to die water")
#[i/a]ma	1.‘to kill’; 2.‘to hunt; fish’
#[i/u]maL	‘to strike, hit’	[NC/?+Sal]
#K’u	‘to kill’	[N/S]
#toLi	‘to strike, beat; kill’	[N]	[l ~ n]
#xyáHkwa	‘flint; arrowpoint; knife’	[N/S]
#(a)sáːK’a	‘obsidian (?+ flint)’	[N]
#(aː)K’ow	‘to sever, cut off; chop’	[N]	[w ~ m]
#wow	‘to cut’	[NC]
#T’aP	‘to split’	[N/S]
#PIs	‘to cut; split;[i ~ a] kill’	[N]	[s ~ š]
#takyh	‘to separate, split, tear’	[N/S]
#C’u	‘to cut, break’	[N]
#qha(w)	‘to break; cut’	[N/S]
#Xaw	‘to break, cut’	[N/S]	[weak set]
#X!aw	‘to crush’	[NC]	[w ~ m]
#LIw	‘to press, mash; pet, stroke’	[N]
#Law	‘to grind (with pestle)’
#les	‘to smash, grind, crush’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#čha	‘to mash, pound into mush’	[NC]
#pi	‘to pound’	[N/S]
#(a)pIy	‘stone’	[MA]
#[a/i-]píH	‘bone; egg; ballock’	[N/S]
#[i/a]-xyáʔ	‘stone’	[N/S]
#xyáʔ=PI(y)	‘mortar, metate; stone’		[xy ~ x̣x] compound
#i(H)0-a	‘bone’	[N/S]
#a(ː)K	‘bone’	[N/S]	[K ~ K’]
#KhÁlye	‘bone’	[S]
#[i/a/u]-laxw	‘nails; claw’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(i-)phiH	‘nail, finger- or toe-’	[N]
#x̣eC’	‘to scrape with claws; claw’	[N]
#kw’a	‘to scratch’	[N/S]
#xwaly	‘to scratch[; grind, pound]	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(T)aXas	‘to scrape; scratch’	[SW/?+Kar]	[s ~ š; a2 ~ i] (?causative prepound pHok *ta=)
#acex̣i	‘to scratch’	[NC]	[?asp]
#LaP	‘to slap; hit’	[N/S]	[l ~ n]
#Laʔt	‘to mash, scrape, split, crack’	[N]	[l ~ n; a ~ o]
#Lam	‘to mash; bedrock mortar’	[N/S]
#čuL	‘to grind (with pestle)	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#ikya	‘to grind; pestle; pounding basket’	[N/S]
#waː	‘to grind; pound’	[N/S]
#[a/i]ta	‘to grind [*a]; pound [*o]’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#to	‘to remove, take off’	[N]	[weak set]
#aš	‘corn gruel’	[S]
#qx̣ar	‘to chip’	[N/S]
#ʔihi	‘to shell acorns’	[NC]
#C’al	‘to break, split, squeeze, wring’	[N/S]
#qaP	‘to split; break with teeth’	[N/S]
#kyat	‘to cut; break; bite’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#qa	‘to bite; by biting, with the teeth’	[N/S]	[Chi q’] (incorp prepound)
#¢ca	‘to bite; with the mouth/teeth’	[N/S]	[¢ ~ č] (incorp prepound)
#u¢’i	‘to chew’	[NC]
#[í/a]-0-a(w)	‘tooth’	[N/S]	[?a ~ o]
#i-ʔ¢ow	‘tooth’	[NC]	[¢ ~ č]	cf. pTol *wic/ ‘tooth’ < *í7c/ow ?
#ʔ¢owa(ːK)	‘jaw; chin’	[NC]	[¢ ~ č]
#qawa	‘jaw; chin’	[N]
#q’usa	‘*jointː elbow; jaw, chin’
#phi	‘to pierce and separate; burst, snap’	[N]
#qiK	‘to jab; nudge, crack’	[N/S]
#ša	‘to move a long object lengthwise; sting, pierce, stab, poke hole’
#sa	‘arrow’	[NC]
#Xa	‘bamboo; reed’	[S]
#Xá=ša	‘arrow; reed’	[S]	compound (= *"reed arrow")
#Cu	‘to poke, pierce, spear; spear arrow, needle’	[N/S]
#C’oq	‘to stab’	[N]
#LUmi	‘spear’	[NC]
#ip(H)u	‘to sting; stab; awl’	[NC]	[p ~ p’ ~ ph}
#si	‘thorn; to pierce; awl, nail’	[N/S]
#na	‘to hit; kill’; + ‘to stab (Cho)’	[S]
#kya	‘to shoot’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#isL...	‘to shoot’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#pa	‘to hit’; + ‘to break (Cho)’	[N/S]
#(u)Pakyh	‘to hit, strike’	[N/S]	[a ~ i]
#PaN	‘pestle, mortar’	[Coast]
#PaK	‘to burst; cut’	[N/S]
#PaT	‘to break, crack; poke; shoot’	[N/S]
#PáL(a)	‘to push, knock; shoot’	[N]
#Pax̣xu	‘bow’	[Coast]
#x̣aky’	‘bow’	[N/S]
#x̣op’u	‘bow’	[N/S]
#Puʔo	‘to shoot; hunt’	[N]
#(a)ṭ’íK	‘to kill’; + ‘to shoot (Sal)’	[N]
#ṭ’eK	‘to cut’	[Cho]	[Sal] ~ #ṭeK’
#ipá	‘tree, stick; arrow; classifier/postpound in tree names’
#i-ʔÍy	‘tree, wood’	[N/S]
#(a-)x̣áy	‘tree’	[N/S]
#=lyI	‘plant/tree postpound’
#axya	‘cottonwood’
#IXa	‘willow’	[SW ?+Cho *ʔeːx ‘wood’]	[w]
#a-Hów or #a-Háw	‘fire; (fire)wood; to make a fire’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#iyu	‘to catch fire; fire’	[N]
#ArUy	‘hot’	[N/S]
#lyap’	‘hot; to burn, start a fire’	[S]
#Tu	‘hot; to be burnt; burn’	[N/S]
#iNi	‘hot; to burn’		[i ~ a]
#(i)pI(K’)	‘to burn; be ripe, cooked’	[N/S]
#ipé	‘day’	[N/S]
#pily	‘(to be) hot, warm; heat; to heat; burn’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#aphey	‘ashes’	[N/S]
#ma	‘to burn’	[N/S]		NC +nominalizerː ‘ashes’
#i-ma	‘fire; heat’	[NC]
#ma(H)	‘ripe, cooked; to ripen, be cooked’	[N/S]
#maq’	‘to roast’	[NC]
#muHt’	‘to cook; roast’	[N]
#šily	‘to roast’	[SW]	[ly ~ ny]
#pha	‘to bake’	[N/S]
#axwa	‘smoke’	[N/S]
#x̣owK	‘coal’	[NC]
#Xuly	‘dry’	[S]
#ky’ar	‘dry’	[N]
#aHma(ṭ’)	‘earth’	[N/S]
#šiqx̣oʔ	‘earth’	[N]
#yax̣	‘earth; dirt; sand’	[NC]	[a ~ o]
#Tap	‘dust, flour’	[NC]	[?asp]
#t’a	‘dust, dirt’	[N]
#T’as	‘sand’	[NC]	[a ~ i; s ~ ¢]
#poṭ	‘to shatter/scatter; mud; dust’	[N/S]
#alʔa	‘sun’ or ‘asterism’	[N/S]
#q’ara	‘moon’	[N]
#a/i-nya	‘sun; day’	[N/S]
#č’uwaR	‘sun’	[NC]
#(a)mu	‘star’	[N]
#xyamu	‘star’	[N/S]	?compound (?= *xya=mu "water star")
#...ša...	‘star’	[N/S]
#ša	‘clear, shining’	[N/S]		See #ma-sa, etc. ‘white’ [N/S]
#íša(X!)	‘sun; day’	[N/S]
#asi	‘sun; day’	[N]	[s ~ š]
#ipé	‘day’	[N/S]
#(a)xyaʔ	‘morning, daylight’	[N]
#alayi	‘dawn’	[N/S]
#xyaʔ=alayi	‘to be daylight’	[YanːNC]	compound
#(h)aw(a)	‘(to) dawn’	[MA]
#uT	‘to light, shine’	[N]
#mič	‘to shine’	[NC]	[i ~ a] [?glott/asp]
#č’aqx	‘shining’	[NC]
#la...	‘to shine; glitter; gleam’	[N/S]
#[a/i]meto	‘(to) thunder; lightning’	[N/S]
#maq’	‘thunder’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(a)naH	‘to thunder’	[S]
#NuL	‘to thunder’	[NC]	[n ~ l]
#xya¢c‘	‘cold [*a]; winter [*u]’	[N/S]	[a ~ o; xy ~ x̣x]
#ásce	‘cold’		[s¢ ~ šč]
#mAtU	‘cold; to freeze’	[N]	[t ~ th]
#q’iw	‘cold; to freeze’	[N]
#iyiw	‘snow, ice; cold, cool’	[N/S]
#Tih(e)	‘snow’	[N]	[i ~ a]
#pha¢c	‘snow; rain’	[N/S]
#ipáː	‘cloud; rain’	[N/S]
#[a/i]kwhey	‘rain; cloud’	[N/S]
#(i)taky	‘rain’	[NC]
#sa	‘fog’	[N/S]
#¢c’iPu	‘fog’	[N]	[?asp]
#K’aw	‘hail’	[N]
#(I)wi	‘mountain; top; on’	[N/S]
#(h)awa	‘mountain; top; on’	[N/S]	[a2 ~ o]
#ma	‘to climb, (go) up’	[N]
#emaʔ(y)	‘sky; up; above’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#paL	‘to rise up’	[NC]
#[a/i]pa(ly]	‘top; sky/above’	[N/S]
#tam	‘to arise, get up; above’	[N/S]
#Ki	‘to lift, raise; get up’	[N]
#u¢i¢ ~ i¢u¢	‘to arise; lift’	[NC]	[?asp]
#al	‘to climb’	[N/S]
#K’ah	‘upstream’	[NC]
#ULU	‘downriver’	[NC]
#Taqa	‘relatives’	[NC]	[?asp]
#(aː)t’u(n)	‘brother’	[N]
#Péyu	‘brother’	[N/S]
#ʔapho	‘brother’	[NC]
#ča	‘brother’	[NC]	[?asp]
#Kaːča	‘elder brother’	[SW]
#aLi	‘brother, male cousin’	[NC]
#wala	‘wife’s brother’	[NC]
#[a/i]či	‘sister’	[N]	[?asp]
#pi	‘sister’	[N/S]
#TaL	‘sister’	[S]
#isa	‘elder sister’	[N/S]
#...aq	‘younger sister’	[N/S]
#awa	‘husband; man; person’	[NC]
#ʔay	‘father’	[N/S]	[?i ~ a]
#[i/a]Ka	‘father’	[N]
#ičhi	‘father’	[NC]		(Yan /ch/, Chi /č/)
#tat(a)	‘father’	[N/S]	Symbolic and widespread.
#pa	‘father’	[N/S]	Symbolic and widespread.
#mam	‘father’	[TM]	Common in Meso-America.
#(aː)Ko(wiʔ)	‘father; male; older male (relative)’	[N/S]
#Kuʔu	‘older female (relative)	[N/S]
#(a)ní	‘mother’	[N/S]
#aṭxE	‘mother’	[N]
#+ʔ0-a	‘female’	[N]
#ta	‘mother’		[a ~ o]
#ta	‘woman; female’	[N/S]
#imátV	‘woman; mother; female breast; milk’	[N/S]	?compound. Probably ends in #ta.
#mari	‘woman’	[NC]
#ma	‘mother; breast; milk’	[S]	Symbolic and widespread.
#mamO	‘woman; female’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#qe	‘woman’	[S]
#luwA	‘wife’	[N/S]	[w ~ m]
#[i/a]Paː(wV)	‘father’s father’	[N/S]		See #pa ‘father’
#[a/i]maː(wV)	‘father’s mother’	[N/S]		See #ma ‘mother’
#kyaː(wV)	‘mother’s mother’	[N/S]
#kwaː(wV)	‘mother’s father’	[N/S]
#(a)Cu(wV)	‘parent’s mother = grandmother’	[NC]
#taʔ	‘parent’s brother = uncle’	[N]		See #tat(a) ‘father’
#ewí	‘father’s brother’	[N/S]
#muta ~ #muC’i	‘parent’s sister = aunt’	[N/S]
#api	‘father’s sister’	[S]		See #pi ‘sister’
#šeː	‘mother’s sister’	[N/S]	[š ~ s]
#ṭhu	‘mother’s sister’	[N]
#ṭhuL	‘old’	[N]
#wima	‘in-law’	[N]
#-ami-	‘child’s spouse’s parent = co-parent-in-law’	[N]
#maky’u	‘uncle; nephew/niece; parent-in-law’	[N]
#pané	‘large, big’	[S]
#(i)¢a	‘large’	[N]
#ChiL	‘big’	[N/S]		(Yan ch; Cho c ~ c’)
#(i)čhu(L)	‘long, tall, far, deep; big’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#K’uly	‘to climb; arise; lift’	[N/S]
#kyoː(y)	‘to grow’	[N/S]
#(a)KU	‘long, tall; big’	[N/S]	[?*ky] [k ~ k’]
#kyuly	‘tall, high, deep’	[S]
#Kur	‘far, distant’	[S]
#aqoly	‘long’	[N/S]
#qam	‘big, large; long, tall, far’	[N/S]
#phow	‘far; beyond’	[N]
#pa¢’	‘wide, broad; far’	[N/S]	[a ~ o] [?asp]
#wa	‘long; large’	[NC]
#To	‘long, tall; far’	[S]
#tan	‘many, much’	[NC]
#taK	‘great; plural’	[N/S]
#taː	‘lots; big’	[NC]
#aTaXu	‘many’	[S]
#ṭhay	‘much, many; big’	[N/S]
#Paː-ṭhay	singular	[N/S]		(*pa- adjective prefix)
#pe(L) ~ #pa(ly)	‘much, many, numerous; all’
#ifiʔ	‘to grow’	[N/S]	[weak set]
#kyu(m)	‘all’	[N]
#pu	‘all’	[N/S]
#-č’i	‘diminutive suffix’	[N]
#¢chi	‘small’	[S]
#qiC’i	‘little, small’	[N/S]
#isíly	‘narrow; thin; little’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#KuʔSu	‘narrow’	[S]
#ʔur	‘short; small’	[N/S]
#qu	‘small, little, young; son, daughter; baby, infant’	[N/S]	[q ~ ky; ky ~ ky’]
#qawi	‘small; baby; child; boy; girl’	[N]
#ala	‘child; small’	[N]	[a1 ~ o]
#(u)wa(y)	‘child; offspring’	[S]
#xyaC’(iny)	‘girl’	[N/S]
#x̣ič	‘girl’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp]
#pu	‘bear’	[N]
#ima	‘bear’	[N/S]		(pPom *l-, Coc t- noun prefixes)
#muxwa	‘badger; porcupine’	[N/S]
#qx̣asč’iB	‘porcupine (quills)’	[NC]	Irregular phonology.
#x̣assE	‘otter’	[NC]
#wan	‘weasel’	[NC]
#wI	‘coyote’	[N/S]
#mayč’V	‘coyote’	[N]
#čhi	‘dog’	[N/S]
#(a)pVrax̣	‘fox’	[KarːNC + Yum]
#haːw	‘fox’	[ChiːNC + Yum]		Also found outside Hokan.
#(a)pVrax̣=haːw	‘fox’	[YumːSW]	compound
#tu	‘fox’	[N]
#qhuw(a	‘fox; lynx; dog’	[N/S]	[n/w])
#nyam	‘bobcat (wild cat); cougar (mountain lion)’	[N/S]
#talom	‘wild cat’	[N]
#xwiyU	‘wild cat’	[MA]
#Kuly	‘jackrabbit’	[N/S]	[ly ~ ny]
#he	‘jackrabbit’	[N/S]
#(a)ma	‘rabbit’	[N]
#x̣olyʔa	‘rabbit’	[N/S]	[x̣ ~ xy]
#he=ma=x̣olyʔa	‘jackrabbit’	[Chi]	compound
#apxar	‘cottontail’	[SW]
#numi	‘rabbit’	[N]
#a¢hey	‘squirrel’	[N/S]
#qali	‘squirrel’	[N]
#wisila	‘chipmunk’	[NC]
#muqiq’ ~ #muq’aq	‘mole; gopher’	[N]
#maL	‘gopher; rock squirrel’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#x̣aLas	‘gopher’	[NC]
#amI	‘gopher; ?coati’	[N/S]
#pEyam	‘agouti; coati’	[MA]
#máqily	‘rat’	[N/S]
#XaBa	‘rat’	[N]	Irregular phonology.
#p’usaL	‘mouse’		[s ~ š]
#čem...	‘bat’		[č ~ č’]	Also found outside Hokan.
#č’iy	‘bird’	[N/S]
#(a)čuwi	‘bird’	[NC]
#č’ipay	‘eagle; bird’	[S]
#ša	‘eagle’	[N/S]
#awiča	‘golden eagle’	[NC]		(Chi č-, Ach l- noun prefixes)
#čupx̣a	‘bald eagle’	[NC]
#emaL	‘bald eagle’	[NC]
#sVkwily	‘hawk’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#čuKču(K)	‘fish hawk’	[NC]
#čiqx̣či(qx̣)	‘fish hawk’	[N]	[č ~ č’]
#Liq’Liq’, etc.	‘sparrowhawk’		[l ~ n]
#C(’)Vʔur or #ʔCur	‘hawk; condor’	[N/S]
#huš	‘buzzard’			Widespread and symbolic.
#¢cíHkyuli	‘owl’	[N]	Though symbolic may show regular phonology.
#anyá	‘crow; black (Yum)’	[N/S]	[ny ~ ly]
#q(x̣)aːq	‘crow’	[N/S]		Widespread and symbolic.
#¢c’ewaL	‘bluejay’	[N]	[¢’ ~ č’]
#ṭaq’	‘woodpecker’	[N]
#č’Am	‘woodpecker’	[N]
#č’uratu or #č’urata	‘woodpecker’	[NC]	[a2 ~ o]
#KurAT	‘woodpecker’	[NC]
#čiTa	‘magpie’	[NC]	[?glott/asp]
#¢c’ikpapka(k)	‘robin’	[NC]	Symbolic; may have originally been conventionalized as *c/’ikwakwa, then reshaped.	Also found outside Hokan.
#¢c’oːq’	‘yellowhammer’	[NC]	[c/’ ~ č’]
#tiːL	‘killdeer’	[N]	[l ~ n]	Symbolic and widespread.
#p’uč’i(N)	‘hummingbird’	[NC]
#(l)alaq, etc.	‘goose’	[N/S]		Widespread and presumably symbolic.
#taLawax̣ ~ #tawax̣aL	‘crane’	[N]
#q’aṭ’q’aṭ’	‘crane; duck’	[N]	Symbolic.
#qaLa	‘duck’	[NC]
#¢c’aTaTa	‘kingfisher’	[N]		Also found outside Hokan.
#šaqáːqa	‘(valley) quail’	[N]	Symbolic.
#ṭaKaKa	‘(valley) quail’		[ṭ ~ ṭ’] Symbolic.
#ky’uho	‘(mountain) quail’	[N]
#qx̣úmVli	‘quail’	[Coast]	Symbolic.
#Tu	‘turkey’	[S]		Forms like this are widespread in Meso-America.
#(wa)ṭaK’	‘frog’	[N/S]		Also found outside Hokan.
#x̣ančif	‘frog’	[NC]	Possibly a compound.
#qoto	‘frog; tadpole’	[N]		Also found outside Hokan.
#čiwu	‘lizard’	[NC]	[w ~ m]
#úyVLV	‘lizard sp.’	[N]	Symbolic.
#ep...	‘iguana’	[S]
#Vwi	‘snake’	[SW]
#(q)x̣owa	‘rattlesnake’	[NC]
#mi/aK...i	‘rattlesnake’	[N]	Irregular phonology.
#wisi (?~ #(w)usi)	‘rattlesnake; to rattle’	[N/S]
#(q)hap’i	‘turtle’	[N/S]	[C/T]
#axya naly	‘turtle; gourd, rattle’	[N/S]	phrase/compound
#(a)šwá	‘fish’	[N]
#či	‘fish’	[SW]
#KaL	‘fish; trout; eel’	[N]	[k ~ k’]
#TaLi	‘salmon’	[N]
#VsKáK	‘salmon’	[NC]	[a ~ o] May be a compound.
#maL	‘salmon trout’	[N]	[l ~ n]
#[a/i]č(V)wuːn	‘dog salmon’	[NC]	[w ~ m]
#čamU(ly)	‘suckerfish’	[N]	[č ~ š]
#Cim	‘whale’	[N]		Also found outside Hokan.
#¢car	‘mussel’	[NC]	[¢ ~ s]
#čax̣	‘mussel’	[NC]
#paKa	GLOSS?	[NC]	[a1 ~ o]
#aCho	‘snail’	[MA]
#x̣a(n)ču	‘crawfish’	[NC]	May be a compound.
#kwelya	‘*bug sp.’	[MA]	[weak semantics]
#č’iwa=ips(iT)	‘ant’	[N]
#lyaP	‘butterfly’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp]
#phaLóLo	‘butterfly; bat’	[N]	Symbolic.
#apoL	‘cocoon’	[NC]	[l ~ n] [?glott/asp]
#¢c’ata	‘grasshopper’	[NC]	[?a2 ~ o]
#Cew	‘grasshopper’	[NC]
#K’iʔú	‘yellowjacket’	[NC]
#mum	‘fly’	[N]		Also found outside Hokan.
#čuf	‘fly; mosquito’	[NC]
#saʔmUly	‘fly; mosquito’	[N/S]
#silimu ~ #¢’imilu	‘fly; flea’	[NC + SW]	Symbolic.
#ime+lya	‘flea; louse’	[N/S]	?+lya = diminutive?
#ʔily	‘louse; flea’	[N/S]
#iK’ey	‘flea; louse’	[N]
#ač’i	‘louse; flea’	[N/S]
#¢c’in	‘tick; louse; nit’	[N/S]
#aHkwi	‘louse’	[N/S]
#pélya	‘worm; flea/louse’	[N/S]	?+lya diminutive?
#(a)pi	‘worm’	[N/S]
#p’éLa	‘slug’	?+lya diminutive?
#mO...	‘worm; centipede’	[MA]
#amTaB	‘earthworm’	[NC]	Irregular phonology.
#phA	‘leaf’	[N/?+Cho]
#ṭ’a(L)	‘leaf’	[N]
#La	‘leaf’	[MA]	[a ~ o]
#xyan	‘leaf’	[NC]	[xy ~ x̣]
#[i/a]pa	‘flower’	[S]	[?asp]
#(a)paq	‘to bloom’	[S]	[?asp]
#iso	‘seed; fruit; sperm’	[N/S]		Probably has pHok prefix *Hiː-.
#yi¢	‘seed; fruit’	[SW]
#(a)mu	‘log’	[N]		cf. #mu ‘to lie down’.
#yuːw	‘log’	[NC]	[w ~ m]
#axya	‘cottonwood’	[N/S]
#sa	‘pine sp.’	[NC]
#(is=)iwi(ly)	‘yellow pine, etc.’	[N/S]	[w ~ m; ly ~ ny]
#asu	‘yellow pine, etc.’	[NC]	[?a ~ o]
#čHuʔ	‘pine’	[N]	[čx̣ ~ č’]
#CHaL	‘digger pine’	[NC]
#ačhow	‘sugar pine’	[NC]
#Pu	‘pine nut’	[N/S]
#kyHo	‘pine nut’	[N/S]	[kyx̣ ~ ky’]
#hu	‘pine nut’	[N]
#huː=si	‘pine needle/cone’	[N]	compound (= * pine.nut X")
#naqx̣	‘cedar’	[NC]
#Tah	‘fir’	[NC]	[*x̣ or *h]
#(i)Pá	‘juniper’	[NC]
#C’imC’im	‘spruce’	[NC]
#maly	‘acorn’	[N]
#yu	‘acorn; oak’	[N]
#kyhuL	‘white oak’	[N]
#TaK’	‘black oak’	[NC]
#kwap	‘oak sp.’	[N/S]
#wey	‘oak sp.’	[N]
#wey=yu	‘acorn’	[N]	compound (= *"oak.sp acorn")
#p’oːL	‘chokecherry, wild cherry’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#pat(Ku)	‘wild plum’	[NC]
#yOn	‘buckeye’	[NC]		Also found outside Hokan.
#p’ašáʔ	‘buckeye’	[N]
#p’aHa	‘pinole’	[S]
#faː¢a	‘manzanita’	[NC]
#paṭtáqx̣	‘manzanita’	[N/S]
#Baha	‘green manzanita’	[NC]	Irregular phonology.
#Pahe	‘pepperwood, peppernut (California laurel)’	[N]
#wa¢	‘madrone’	[NC]	[¢ ~ s]
#IXa	‘willow’	[SW ? + Cho *7eːx ‘wood’]	[w]
#wat	‘willow’	[N]
#Pačhu	‘willow’	[NC]
#Pas	‘willow’	[N]	[?asp]
#sO	‘clover’	[N]
#paT	‘clover sp.’	[NC]
#xyaCa	‘grass’	[N/S]
#qx̣atsi(r)	‘grass; hay’	[NC]	May be a compound.
#maːx̣a	‘white grass’	[NC]
#maːkya	‘grass sp.’	[N]	[aː ~ oː]
#K’uhiL	‘nettle’	[NC]	[l ~ n]
#x̣any	‘onion’	[N/S]
#šim	‘pigweed; panic grass’	[SW]
#ʔúː+fa or #ʔúː+ha(+pi) and/or #ʔúː+fa+pi	‘tobacco’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(ṭ-)x̣apily	‘cattail, tule’	[N/S]		(*t.- noun prefix)
#x̣aL	‘tule’	[N]	[a ~ o]
#x̣am	‘squash’	[SW]
#K’aC’i	‘wild grapes’	[NC]
#sely	‘plant sp.’	[SW]	[very doubtful]
#so	‘bower, ramada’	[S]
#čaly	‘wild potato’	[N/S]
#san	‘wild potato (edible root)’	[NC]	[a ~ o]
#qhawel	‘wild potato; sweet manioc’	[N/S]	[*qh or *qx̣]
#ʔaP	‘soaproot’	[N/S]
#(i)ṭát	‘thorn (spear, stinger, quill)’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#(a)súL	‘string’	[N]
#nuly	‘maguey (fiber)’	[MA]
#(a)mály	‘agave; biznaga’	[S]
#(ʔ)uːly	‘cactus sp’	[SW]
#ʔa-ma	‘yucca’	[SW]
#č’aLuK	‘mushroom sp.’		[l ~ n]
#(P-)išiw	‘raw; green; to heal, recover’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp]	(*pa- or *pha- adjective prefix)
#(xy)ašúy	‘raw, unripe; green/blue; alive’	[N/S]
#(m)ásu	‘green, yellow’		[s ~ š] (*m- adjective prefix)
#masó(L)	‘red, brown’	[N/S]
#K!(i)-ʔíL	‘yellow; ruddy; black’	[N/S]	[*q or *kw] [l ~ n]
#lu	‘yellow’	[S]
#ya	‘yellow’	[S]
#ya=lu	‘yellow’	[YemːTM]	(= *"yellow yellow")
#px̣UL	‘to paint’	[NC]
#px̣uN	‘red earth’	[NC]
#(a-)xwá(-ṭ‘)	‘blood; red’	[N/S]
#(i-)šiṭ	‘blood’	[NC]
#apx̣ú	‘white’	[N/S]
#ṭha(y)	‘white’	[N/S]		(Sal ma- adjective prefix)
#tam	‘white (spot)’	[N]
#it’a(yu)	‘white’	[N]		(EPom ph- adjective prefix)
#ma-sa	‘white; white man’	[N/S]	[y/n/0] [s ~ š]
#ša	‘clear; shining’	[N/S]		Also listed elsewhere
#(a)mU	‘dark; night’	[S]
#Pa	‘night’	[N/S]		([a ~ o] Cho)
#px̣a(wi)	‘night’	[N]	[a ~ o]
#[U/i]phaL	‘black’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#nyily	‘black; to write’	[S]
#(x̣)alVm	‘night; pitch dark’	[N]
#x̣UR	‘evening; dark’	[N/S]	[l ~ n]
#tu	‘night’	[N]
#we	‘night’	[N]
#Tiy=nya	‘night’	[S]	[?asp] compound	(= *"X sun/day")
#[y/n/t]ama(-C’i)	‘armpit’	[N/S]
#Ca=kwif	‘to ask’	[S]	instrument prepound + root	(Cho /kwicuf/ shows metathesis/scrambling)
#maL	‘bad’	[N/S]
#(q)x̣uL	‘bad; to fear; have unpleasant thoughts’	[N]
#(i)yaː	‘(to be) afraid’	[N/S]
#puqha(ly)	‘basket’	[N]	[ly ~ ny]
#upu	‘to weave’	[S]	[?glott/asp]
#p’uː	‘basket’	[N/S]
#(u)p’ay	‘basket’	[N]
#Lus	‘basket’	[NC]
#siT’iL	‘basket’	[NC]
#x̣anow	‘burden basket’	[NC]
#kw’iny	‘to twist; twirl; twine’	[N/S]
#K’uny	‘crooked; basket’	[N/S]
#ky’OL	‘to bend; be bent’	[NC]		This may go with the previous two.
#tu	‘to roll (up/along)’	[N/S]
#iwiL	‘to roll[; twist]’	[N/S]	[w ~ m]
#wi(K)	‘to weave’	[NC]
#(i)pi¢‘i	‘to weave’	[N/S]
#CiL	‘to curl; curled up’	[NC]
#a¢’ip	‘to wring’	[NC]	[?asp]
#iphowaly	‘beads’	[N]
#pul	‘to boil’	[N/S]	[?asp]
#mUl	‘to boil’	[MA]
#Pot	‘to boil’	[N]
#C’o	‘bunch’	[N/S]	[weak set]
#pUly	‘clothes’	[MA]
#[a/i]mo(ly)	‘(mountain) sheep; blanket; shirt, dress; cotton’	[N/S]
#šap	‘to close’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp]
#č’aK	‘to close’	[N]	[?a ~ o]
#apuly	‘to cover’	[N/S]
#aʔLi	‘to cover’	[N/S]
#wuL	‘to crawl’	[N]	[w ~ m; l ~ n]
#(a)Ci	‘to creep; crawl’	[NC]
#ima	‘to dance’	[N/S]
#ihE	‘to dance; sing’	[N]
#(eː)xye	‘to sing; song; dance’	[N]
#[U/i]sow	‘to sing’	[S]	[s ~ š]
#qx̣oL	‘to dent’	[NC]	[*qx̣ or *qh]
#pu	‘to plant; dig; hoe; (digging) stick’	[N/S]	[p ~ p’]
#oːpu	‘to dig; hoe’	[N/S]	[p ~ p’]
#eːPu	‘edible root’	[N]
#...ap	‘to dig’	[N/S]	[?asp]	‘to dig’ [weak set]
#ip’eL ~ #iLep’	‘to dig’	[N]
#wI	‘to dig’	[NC]		(cf. Yan w=eːpu- ‘to dig roots’)
#wasu	‘digging stick’	[N/?+Cho /as.ú7/]	[s ~ š]
#ThiN	‘direction’	[NC]	[i ~ a]
#xyaHtey	‘to dream’	[N]
#meN	‘to drill; disk[beads]’	[NC]
#ama	‘to eat (drink; taste); food’	[N/S]
#iwa	‘to eat’	[N]
#pi=LI	‘to eat mush with fingers/hands’	[N]	[l ~ n; i ~ a]
#Laš	‘food; bread’	[N/S]
#nI	‘(acorn) bread’	[N]
#Sow(iː)	‘acorn bread; acorn cakes; acorn mush’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#šiP	‘(to die[fire];) to douse (fire)’	[N/S]	[i ~ a] [?asp]
#axwir	‘fence’	[SW]
#isax̣ay	‘to fish’	[NC]		Probably a compound.
#ṭ’el	‘flat’	[N/S]
#liph	‘flat’	[N/S]	[i ~ a; l ~ n]
#phil	‘flat’	[N]	[i ~ a]
#šaːly	‘to leak’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#Pa	‘to flow’	[N]
#cuw	‘to flow; creek; river’	[NC]	[w ~ m]
#panA	‘river’	[MA]	[a ~ o]
#LuPu	‘lake’	[N]
#yu	‘to fly’	[N/S]
#Ta	‘to fly’	[NC]
#Kap	‘to jump; fly’	[N/S]	[a ~ i] [?glott/asp]
#paK	‘to fill; full’	[N/S]	[a ~ o] [?asp]
#[a/i]Pir	‘to fill; full’	[N/S]	[?asp]
#PiNiH	‘to fill; full’	[N]	[i1 ~ a]
#[a/i]p’uL	‘to fill; full’	[N]
#mati	‘to fill’	[N]
#aːKu(-hi)	‘to gather, pick up (esp. acorns)’	[N]
#yu	‘gathered in a pile’	[NC]
#Tu	‘to harvest’	[MA]
#yisiː	‘good; right (=/ left)’	[N/S]	[i1 ~ a]
#C’um	‘good’	[N]
#Xan	‘good; pleasant’	[S]
#XaliK’u	‘happy’	[N/S]
#KiL	‘to be hanging/hung; to hang’	[N]	[?asp]
#TaK	‘to hang; droop’	[NC]
#sarey	‘to hate; be angry’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]
#¢ciw	‘to fight’	[NC]
#TUː	‘to fight’	[SW]
#fal	‘to fight’	[MA]	[a ~ o]
#xwa(y)	‘enemy’	[N/S]
#we	‘to have’	[S]
#mi¢a	‘heavy’	[NC]	[i ~ a]
#maL	‘to doubt; hesitate’	[N/S]
#(iː-)mU	‘hole’	[N/S]
#Culy	‘hole’	[N/S]	[C ~ S] [weak set]
#oːʔaya	‘hole; cave’	[N/S]		Probably a compound.
#TaK	‘hoop’	[NC]	[?glott/asp]
#Kowš	‘hump’	[SW]
#samukwir	‘to be jealous; to offer herself in marriage’	[N/S]	[s ~ š]	Must be a compound.
#áwa	‘to be lacking; miss, be lonely for’	[N]
#asiy+o	‘to laugh’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#Xir+a	‘to laugh’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#CAL	‘to laugh’	[N]
#[a/i]LiK	‘to laugh’	[N]
#ili	‘lazy’	[N/S]	[i2 ~ a]
#Kisár+iK	‘left(handed)’	[SW]
#x̣am	‘to forget’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#šam	‘to miss’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#ša	‘to not know’	[N]
#aK’	‘lost’	[S]
#(a)ta 1.	‘to do; make’;
#hay	‘to do; make’	[N/S]	[a ~ o] [h ~ x̣]
#(u)mu	‘to work; try; fix; finish’	[N/S]
#(a-)wir	‘to finish’	[N/S]
#(a)ma	‘to finish’	[N]
#q’a	‘to finish’	[N]
#Pal	‘near’		[l ~ n] [?glott/asp]	‘near’
#maqx̣	‘near’	[NC]	[a ~ o]
#iqir	‘net’	[NC]
#(a)sU	‘net; weir’	[SW]
#PeLa	‘new’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp]
#XeniX	‘to make noise’	[SW]
#hiH0-a	‘path; road’	[N]
#(a)nya	‘path; road’	[S]
#šiṭ.	‘pear-shaped’	[N]
#p’ila	‘to play; toy’	[N/S]	[p’ ~ p]
#loʔo	‘to play’	[S]
#x̣otal	‘poor’	[N/S]
#yu(N)	‘to pull’	[N]
#Tu(w)	‘to pull, drag out; pluck at’	[N/S]	[?glott/asp]
#¢c’aL	‘to put’	[NC]
#TuPi	‘rotten’	[NC]	[?glott/asp]
#(a)sa	‘(to be) rotten’	[SW]	[s ~ š]
#K’uK	‘rough’	[N]
#aphEl	‘round’	[N/S]
#ʔUr	‘round’	[N/S]
#puL	‘round’	[N]	[l ~ n]
#x̣uLu	‘round; kidney’	[N]
#LOL	‘round; kidney’	[N]	[l1 ~ n]
#iːKiR	‘round’	[N]
#fas	‘to rub; touch’	[N/S]	[a ~ i]
#siri	‘to rub; cricket; cicada’	[N/S]	[s ~ ¢]
#q’aL	‘to rub; brush; clean; wash’	[N]
#yuL	‘to rub’	[NC]
#Kany	‘to run (plural subject)’	[N]
#KaL(Vw)	‘to run (plural subject)’	[N/S]
#SU	‘to run’	[N]
#mu	‘to run’	[N]
#yaH	‘quick; fast’	[N]
#puːHes	‘sack’	[NC]		Also found outside Hokan.
#wiy	‘to trade; buy; sell’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#(i)lam	‘to sew’	[N/S]	[l ~ n]
#ši+yo	‘shade’	[N/S]	[i ~ a]
#winy	‘to shake; shiver’	[N/S]
#(i)yu	‘to shake’	[N]
#TaTa	‘to shake’	[N]
#q’UH or #q’uʔwa	‘shamanry; poisoning song’	[N]
#ma(ː)ṭ.	‘poison; sorcery’
#xyaːLu	‘ghost’	[N]
#0-0owP	‘sharp’	[N/S]	[weak set]
#šuP	‘sharp’	[NC]	[š ~ č]
#(w)ax̣raw	‘sharp’		[w2 ~ m] [weak set] Probably a compound.
#lyu	‘smooth’	[N/S]
#La	‘soft’	[NC]	[a ~ o]
#puyKa (~ #puKya)	‘spotted’	[MA]
#KaS	‘to stand’	[N/S]
#yaLiH	‘to stand (animate)’	[N]
#(a)ho	‘to stand’	[N]
#šalaH	‘pitch; sticky’	[N/S]
#x̣awA	‘pitch’	[N]
#pas	‘to stick (to/together)’	[NC]	[?glott/asp]
#meše(w)	‘to stink; smell’	[N/S]	[š ~ s]
#xwe	‘to (have a) smell’	[S]
#px̣u	‘to swell’	[N/S]
#peT	‘swollen’	[SW]	[?glott/asp]
#iThAp	‘thick; fat; puffed up’	[N]
#wir	‘straight’	[N/S]	[w ~ m]
#išiP	‘straight; in a line’	[N]
#fu	‘true’	[NC]
#[a/u]sTuK’	‘(to) sweat’	[NC]	Probably a compound.
#K’u	‘to swim’	[N]
#px̣u	‘to swim’	[NC]
#po	‘to swim; bathe’	[N/S]
#¢caN	‘to float; bathe’	[NC]
#yi	‘to teach; learn’	[N]
#[i/u]ya	‘to know; understand’	[N/S]
#(aː)Ki	‘to think; have in mind’	[N]
#af	‘to throw; pull’	[N/S]		cf. Sp tirar ‘throw’ = Fr tirer ‘pull’
#fa¢’	‘to throw’	[N/S]
#su(m)	‘to throw’	[N]	[s ~ š]
#T’am ~ #T’ap	‘to throw’	[S]	[?asp for #p]
#niH	‘to throw’	[MA]
#(h)oL	‘to throw at; hit’	[N]
#¢ca	‘to tie’	[NC]
#ine	‘to tie’	[NC]
#tiL	‘to touch’	[N]	[i ~ a; l ~ n]
#TaHP	‘(to) trap’	[NC]	[?glott/asp]
#tay	‘trap’	[N]	[?asp]
#EmaC’i	‘to wake up’	[N]	This may be a compound.
#qx̣UL	‘to be hungry’	[N]
#K’uN	‘to want, desire’	[N]
#kw’aw	‘to marry; love’	[TM]
#miʔnya	‘tasty; sweet; to like; love’	[N/S]	[a ~ i; i ~ a]
#wiH	‘(to be) sweet’	[N/S]
#a0-u	‘sweet’	[SW]		cf. Sal /(k)amášu/ ‘sweet’
#(i)si+yV	‘salt’	[N/S]
#(aː-)kyhaʔi	‘salt’	[N]
#ʔčUKpV	‘to wash’	[N]	Probably a compound.
#pa	‘to wash’	[N/S]
#paqh	‘to wash’	[N/S]	[a ~ o]
#pa¢	‘to wash clothes’	[MA]	[a ~ o]
#[iː/a-]-ya	‘wind’	[N/S]
#wA	‘wind’	[N/S]
#amaṭ‘	‘year’	[S]
#...ma	‘yesterday’	[S]

See also

• Appendix:Chumashan and Hokan Swadesh lists