Appendix:Common Mongolic reconstructions
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The following list of Common Mongolic reconstructions (i.e., reconstructions of the core branch of Mongolic languages) is from Nugteren (2011).[1]
Classification[edit]
Groups of languages:
- central Mongolic: Mongol proper, Ordos, Oirat-Kalmuck, Buriat, Khamnigan
- peripheral Mongolic: Non-central languages: Dagur, Eastern Yugur, Shirongol, Moghol
- Shirongol: Mongghul, Mangghuer, Baoan, Kangjia, Dongxiang
- Baoanic: subgroup of Shirongol, consisting of Baoan, Kangjia, and Dongxiang
- Monguoric: subgroup of Shirongol, consisting of Mongghul and Mangghuer
- Dongxiang = Santa
- Baoan = Bonan
- Sanchuan = (a variety of) Mangghuer
- Shirongol: Mongghul, Mangghuer, Baoan, Kangjia, Dongxiang
Most of the peripheral Mongolic languages, including the Qinghai-Gansu languages, are descended from Common Mongolic. However, Dagur, (one of) the most divergent Mongolic language, may not be descended from Common Mongolic according to Nugteren (2011). (Compare the similar concept of "Common Turkic," from which all living Turkic languages – except Chuvash – descend.)
Abbreviations[edit]
| Abbreviation | Language/Dialect |
|---|---|
| CM | Common Mongolic |
| CT | Common Turkic |
| PM | Proto Mongolic |
| WM | Written (Literary) Mongol |
| MMo | Middle Mongol |
| QG | Qīnghăi-Gānsù Languages: Eastern Yugur and Shirongol |
| Brg | ‘Old’ Bargu dialect of Buriat |
| Bur | Buriat |
| Dag | Dagur (usually Butkha dialect) |
| Dgx | Dongxiang (usually Suonanba dialect) |
| DgxL | Longquan dialect of Dongxiang |
| EYu, EYugur | Eastern Yugur |
| EYuQ | Qinglong dialect of Eastern Yugur |
| Kalm | Kalmuck |
| Kgj | Kangjia |
| Kh | Khalkha |
| Kmg | Khamnigan |
| Mgr | Monguor (both languages) |
| MgrH | Mongghul = Huzhu Monguor |
| MgrM | Mangghuer = Minhe Monguor (includes Sanchuan) |
| Mog | Moghol |
| MogM | Mangut dialect of Moghol |
| MogMr | Marda dialect of Moghol |
| Ord | Ordos |
List[edit]
| English meaning | Common Mongolic | comparisons | notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‘to stay, live’ | *a- (?*a:-) | ||
| ‘curds from fermented milk’ | *aarča | ||
| ‘to take, to get’ | *ab- | ||
| ‘paternal uncle’ | *abaga | ||
| ‘to wrestle’ | *abaldu- | ||
| ‘to take/bring with one’ | *abčïra- and *ačara- | ||
| ‘to load’ | *ačï- (< *arčï-) | ||
| ‘burden, load’ | *ačïan (< *arčïan) | ||
| ‘similar, same, as’ | *adalï | ||
| ‘herd (usually of horses)’ | *aduun | ||
| ‘to tend livestock’ | *aduula- | ||
| ‘livestock’ | *aduusun | ||
| ‘to borrow or lend’ | *agsu- | ||
| ‘gelding’ | *agta | *agtala- ‘to geld, castrate’ | |
| ‘camp, group of tents; village; neighbour(hood)’ | *aïl | related to CT *a:gïl | |
| ‘tribe, village’ | *aïmag | related to CT *adgïr ‘id’ (perhaps ~ *adrïg?) | |
| ‘stallion’ | *aǰïrga | ||
| ‘elder brother’ | *aka | ||
| ‘crotch, groin; fork of trousers; hip’ | *ala | ||
| ‘to kill’ | *ala- | ||
| ‘multi-coloured, speckled, spotted’ | *alag | ||
| ‘demon, evil spirit’ | *albïn | Often used with *gal ‘fire’ | |
| ‘to spread the legs’ | *alčaï-/ *alčala- | ||
| ‘fathom, armspan’ | *alda | ||
| ‘to lose, to let go of, etc’ | *alda- | ||
| ‘which’ | *alï | ||
| ‘give me’ | *alï | With several extended forms. Behaves like a verb and takes objects | |
| ‘fruit’ | *alïma | related to CT *alïmla, *alma ‘apple’ | |
| ‘step’ | *alku | ||
| ‘to step’ | *alku- | see the noun *alku ‘step’ | |
| ‘gold’ | *altan | cf. CT *altun ‘gold’ | |
| ‘mouth’ | *aman | often also ‘opening’ | |
| ‘opening (usu. of a vessel)’ | *amasar | apparently from *aman ‘mouth’ | |
| ‘life; breath’ | *amïn | ||
| ‘alive’ | *amïtu, *amïdu | Both derived from *amïn | |
| ‘to taste’ | *amsa-/ *amta- | (the latter form influenced by *amtan?) | |
| ‘taste, flavour’ | *amtan | ||
| ‘rice; millet; rice gruel’ | *amun | also used for other cereals, or as a general term | |
| ‘name of several cereal dishes (not specified in the following); cooked rice’ | *amusun | apparently derived from *amun | |
| ‘to heal, get well, recover’ | *ana- (?*hana-) | ||
| ‘sworn friend; friend’ | *anda | ||
| ‘oath’ | *andagar ~ andaga(ï) | ||
| ‘plough’ | *anǰasun ~ *anǰïsun | ||
| ‘to open, open up (intr), to be agape, etc’ | *aŋgaï- | probably from *aŋ ‘crack, fissure’ | |
| ‘alcoholic beverage’ | *arakï ~ *arïkï | ||
| ‘island; river’ | *aral | ||
| ‘shaft of a cart’ | *aral | ||
| ‘to exchange, trade’ | *aralǰï- | ||
| ‘skin; hide’ | *arasun/*arïsʊn | ||
| ‘barley’ | *arbaï | related to CT *arpa | |
| ‘cypress’ | *arča | cognate of CT *a:rtuč | |
| ‘to wipe, to clean; to weed’ | *arčï- | related to CT *arï-t- ‘id’; cf. *arčïur, *arïl-, *arïun | |
| ‘rag, dust-cloth; towel; scarf’ | *arčïur | ||
| ‘means, way, method, plan, ruse, shrewdness’ | *arga | ||
| ‘to become clean, to clear up; to disappear’ | *arïl- | ||
| ‘to clean’ | *arïlga- | in several languages also ‘to castrate’ | |
| ‘molar; canine; fang, tusk’ | *arïa | often used with *sidün ‘tooth’ | |
| ‘clean; pure’ | *arïun | related to *arčï- and *arïl- ‘above’ | |
| ‘back, posterior side’ | *aru | ||
| ‘pannier, basket (carried on the back)’ | *arug | usu. a basket for collecting dung | |
| ‘to take care of; to bring up, raise; to adopt’ | *asara- | ||
| ‘to pour out, sprinkle, spill, scatter’ | *aska- | ||
| ‘broad, wide, vast’ | *au (and *auï) | ||
| ‘mountain’ | *aula | ||
| ‘steam; anger’ | *aur | see *haur | |
| ‘to sip’ | *aučï- | see *oačï- | |
| ‘to smell, taste’ | *aus- (tr.), *austa- (intr) | ||
| ‘lungs’ | *auškï | ||
| ‘cup, bowl’ | *ayaga | ||
| ‘camp’ | *ayïl | see *aïl | |
| ‘to fear’ | *ayu- | All modern forms derive from *ayi- | |
| ‘we (exclusive)’ | *ba | ||
| ‘to defecate’ | *baa- | ||
| ‘excrement; dung’ | *baasun | ||
| ‘hero’ | *baatur | Wanderwort also found in Turkic, Persian, and Russian | |
| ‘small’ | *baga | cf. *bïčïkan, *üčüken | |
| ‘to have the capacity of, to fit into, to suit; to sink’ | *bagta- | ||
| ‘to stand still, to stop, to pause’ | *baï- | *baï- ‘to be’ is a semantic development | |
| ‘mare’ | *baïdasun/*baïtasun | an alternative form *baïtal is found in Turkic | |
| ‘frog’ | *baka | CT *baka ‘id’; *melekei may have been the original Mongolic word for ‘frog’ | |
| ‘honey’ | *bal | cf. CT *bal ‘id’ | |
| ‘wall; town’ | *bal(a)gasun | CT *balïk ‘id’ | |
| ‘to finish, end’ | *bara- | ||
| ‘right (hand side)’ | *baraun | ||
| ‘to grab, to hold, to take’ | *barï- | in several languages also ‘to build, make, do’ | |
| ‘tiger’ | *bars | an Iranian word that probably entered via Turkic | |
| ‘again; also’ | *basa | related to CT *bas-a | |
| ‘strong, sturdy, firm (of people and objects)’ | *batu | ||
| ‘to descend, come down’ | *bau- | ||
| ‘rich’ | *bayan | related to CT *ba:y ‘id’ | |
| ‘joy, happiness’ | *bayar | ||
| ‘to be glad, rejoice’ | *bayas- | ||
| ‘monkey, ape; ninth in the Twelve Animal cycle’ | *bečin | ||
| ‘ink stick; ink’ | *beke | a cultural word that probably entered from Turkic but is ultimately from Chinese | |
| ‘widow’ | *belbisün | may be of Iranian origin | |
| ‘pastureland’ | *belčier | ||
| ‘delta; confluence of rivers’ | *belčir | cf. Turkic *beltir | |
| ‘ready; ready-made’ | *belen | ||
| ‘daughter-in-law; bride’ | *beri | ||
| ‘sister-in-law’ | *berigen and *bergei | ||
| ‘body; person; side’ | *beye | ||
| ‘I’ | *bï > *bi | ||
| ‘small’ | *bïčïkan | ||
| ‘we (inclusive)’ | *bïda (?and *biden) | ||
| ‘I’ | *bi | ||
| ‘small bird’ | *bïlduur ~ *bïlǰïur | (cf. *sïbaun) | |
| ‘calf’ | *bïrau | (as based on Kh, Ord, Kalm) | |
| ‘quick, lively, smart’ | *bïsïun | ?cf. CT *bïšïg ‘mature’ (lit and fig) | |
| ‘to write’ | *biči- | One of the most widespread loanwords in Eurasia, ultimately from Chinese (cf. Turkic *biti-) | |
| ‘book, writing, letter (epistle)’ | *bičig | ||
| ‘coarse, crude’ | *bidüün | ||
| ‘whetstone’ | *bileü | related to CT *bi:legü | |
| ‘to believe in; to revere, worship’ | *bisire- | ||
| ‘to tie up, bundle, wrap’ | *boa- | cf. CT *bog- | |
| ‘name of various types of bread and pastry fried in oil’ | *boarsag ~ *boarčug | ||
| ‘pregnant; with foal, calf, etc’ | *boas | cf. CT *bogaz | |
| ‘large livestock (collective term for horses, camels, and bovines)’ | *boda | ||
| ‘to count; to calculate; to think; to plan’ | *boda- | cf. *sedki- | |
| ‘low, short (not tall)’ | *boganï | cf. CT *bokay | |
| ‘buttocks; anus’ | *bogar (?*bogaar) and *bagaur (the same etymon?) | cf. *bögse, *kondalaï, *konǰïasun | |
| ‘resin’ | *bokï / *mokïn | ||
| ‘to become, to be; to be possible or allowed’ | *bol- | cf. CT *bo:l- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to ripen, to be cooked’ | *bol- | ||
| ‘all, every’ | *bolgan | ||
| ‘grey’ | *bora | cf. CT *boz | |
| ‘rain’ | *boraan | to be borrowed from Persian bârân | |
| ‘to get up, stand up’ | *bos- | ||
| ‘threshold’ | *bosaga | ||
| ‘camel foal’ | *botaga(n) | CT *boto ‘id’ | |
| ‘quail’ | *bödene | ||
| ‘shaman, sorcerer’ | *böe | cf. CT *bögü ‘id’ | cf. *ïdugan |
| ‘to vomit’ | *böelǰi- | cf. *ogsï- | |
| ‘kidneys’ | *böere | ||
| ‘testicle’ | *böesüg ~ *böesün | cf. *böldegen | |
| ‘louse’ | *böesün | possibly related to CT *bö:g ‘spider’ | |
| ‘to stop up; to block, barricade’ | *bögle- | ||
| ‘backside, buttocks’ | *bögse | cf. *bogar, *kondalaï | |
| ‘young hare’ | *böǰen (?*böǰeŋ) | ||
| ‘strong; wrestler’ | *böke | ||
| ‘hump of a camel’ | *böken | ||
| ‘gadfly, horsefly’ | *bökene (?*bökeene) | with several unexpected variant forms | |
| ‘testicles’ | *böldegen | ||
| ‘(piece of) cloth, textile; cotton cloth’ | *bös | Wanderwort (probably from Arabic bazz) that entered Mongolic from Turkic | |
| ‘bird’s crop, gizzard’ | *bötege | ||
| ‘to boil (intr)’ | *bučal- | *bučalga- ‘to boil (tr)’ | |
| ‘grain, groats; porridge; meal’ | *budaan | ||
| ‘mist’ | *budaŋ | cf. *manan | |
| ‘to dye, paint’ | *budu- | cf. CT *boda- | |
| ‘dyestuff, paint’ | *budug | cf. CT *bodog | |
| ‘deer’ | *bugu | ||
| ‘camel’s nose-plug’ | *buïla | cf. *döre | |
| ‘dirt; dirty’ | *buǰar | ||
| ‘bull’ | *buka | related to CT *buka (?*bu:ka, ?*bukka) ‘id’ | |
| ‘buttocks’ | *bukaur | see * bogaar | |
| ‘to bury’ | *bula- | ||
| ‘(water) spring’ | *bulag | cf. CM *kudug ‘well’ | |
| ‘sable’ | *bulagan (?*bulugan) | ||
| ‘turbid, unclear’ | *bulaŋgïr | ||
| ‘gland’ | *bulčïrkaï | perhaps related to *bulčïn ‘muscle’ (not listed here) | |
| ‘to snatch away, seize’ | *bulï- / *bulïa- | ||
| ‘corner’ | *buluŋ | cf. CT *buluŋ ‘id’ | |
| ‘pea, bean’ | *burčag | related to CT *burčak (?< burč-ak) | |
| ‘willow’ | *burgasun | cf. *hičesün | |
| ‘Buddha; deity’ | *burkan | Wanderwort that probably entered via Turkic *burkan | |
| ‘wrong, false, incorrect; mistake’ | *buruu | either endemic or related to CT *buz- ‘to spoil, ruin’ | |
| ‘(is) not’ (typically the negation for nominal sentences) | *busï (?*bïsï) | *busu ‘other’ | |
| ‘to be scattered, to fall apart, etc’ | *butara- | ||
| ‘wheat’ | *buudaï | related to CT *bugday ‘id’ | |
| ‘groats, porridge’ above. | *budaa | ||
| ‘grey-haired; certain hair colour of animals, usu. shades of grey’ | *buurul | related to CT *bogrul | |
| ‘do not’ | *bü (and *bu?) | (negative (‘prohibitive’) particle used with imperatives and the like) | |
| ‘to stumble’ | *büdüri- | ||
| ‘to dance’ | *büǰi- | related to CT *bödi- ‘id’ | *büǰig ‘dance’ |
| ‘all, every’ | *büküli | ||
| ‘gums’ | *büile | ||
| ‘warm, lukewarm’ | *bülien | ||
| ‘(finger) ring’ | *bülǰeg | loanword from CT *bilezük, probably < *bilek yüzük ‘wrist ring’ | |
| ‘to stare, glare, to open one’s eyes wide’ | *bültei- | ||
| ‘flea’ | *bürge (?*büürge) | from CT *bürge | |
| ‘every, all, whole’ | *büri | ||
| ‘to cover; to become cloudy’ | *bürkü- | ||
| ‘lid, cover’ | *bürküer and *bürküür | ||
| ‘belt’ | *büse | ||
| ‘woman’ | *büsegüi | < *büse ügüi ‘without belt’ | |
| ‘to be covered or blocked, to be shrouded (in mist or smoke); to suffocate’ | *büte- | ||
| ‘do not’ | *bütegei (?*bitegei) | (negative particle used with imperatives and the like) | |
| ‘double handful’ | *büteü (?*biteü) | ||
| ‘to finish, succeed, to be formed, concluded, completed’ | *bütü- | ||
| ‘complete, whole, entire; all’ | *bütün | ||
| ‘pommel of a saddle; bow or hind-bow of a saddle’ | *büürge | ||
| ‘over there, on the other side’ | *čaa-da | cf. *čïna- ‘the other side’ | |
| ‘to(wards) that side’ | *čaa-gsï | ||
| ‘farther, yonder’ | *čaa-na | ||
| ‘paper’ | *čaalsun ~ *čaarsun | ||
| ‘to cut, chop, split, fell’ | *čabčï- | ||
| ‘to sprinkle’ | *čaču- | see *saču- | |
| ‘to have eaten one’s fill’ | *čad- | ||
| ‘time’ | *čag | ||
| ‘white’ | *čagaan | ||
| ‘to become white or bright’ | *čaï- | (often used in combination with *ör ‘dawn’) | |
| ‘iris (flower), orchid’ | *čakïrma | ||
| ‘flint; steel for flint; lighter; lightning’ | *čakïur | cf. CT *čak- ‘id’ | |
| ‘snow’ | *časun (?*čabsun) | ||
| ‘shirt’ | *čamča | cf. also Manchu cimci ‘id’ | |
| ‘grasshopper, locust’ | *čarčaa(-kaï) | ||
| ‘to tear to pieces’ | *čaul- | see s.v. *čoal- | |
| ‘flower’ | *čečeg | CT *čeček | often also ‘smallpox’, as in CT *čeček |
| ‘intelligent’ | *čečen | see *sečen | |
| ‘chest; memory’ | *čeeǰi | cf. *čeeǰile- ‘to recite from memory’ | |
| ‘to measure’ | *čene- | ||
| ‘phlegm’ | *čer | ||
| ‘soldier; army’ | *čerig | cf. CT *čerig ‘id’, itself of Indic origin | |
| ‘you (sing.)’ | *čï | ||
| ‘jujube’ | *čïbugan (?* čïbagan) | ||
| ‘to be able’ | *čïda- | ||
| ‘to pour’ | *čïdku- | cf. *ki-, *tüsür- | |
| ‘strong, sturdy, tight’ | *čïïrag | related to CT *tïgrak | |
| ‘to squeeze into, to stuff’ | *čïkï- | related CT *tïk- | The CM form may go back to an earlier (PM) form *tïkï- |
| ‘ear’ | *čïkïn | ||
| ‘to be tired’ | *čïla- | see *čile- | |
| ‘stone’ | *čïlaun | CT *ta:š (in the Shirongol languages, EYu and Kgj) | |
| ‘martingale, part of a horse’s harness, etc’ | *čïlbuur | ||
| ‘temple (anat)’ | *čïmarkaï | ||
| ‘to cook’ | *čïna- | ||
| ‘the day after tomorrow’ | *čïnaïda, *čïnar (and other derivates of *čïna-) | ||
| ‘strong; tight’ | *čïŋga | ||
| ‘wolf’ | *čïno | ||
| ‘to listen’ | *čïŋla- | cf. CT *tiŋle- ~ *tïŋla- ‘id’, perhaps from Chinese tīng | |
| ‘face; facial expression’ | *čïraï | ||
| ‘to pull, drag’ | *čïrï- | ||
| ‘blood’ | *čïsun | The PM root may have been *ču- or *čï- | |
| ‘to gather, convene’ | *čïul- | ||
| ‘to stab’ | *čiči- | see *seči- | |
| ‘demon, devil’ | *čidkör | ||
| ‘horse’s hobble; shackles’ | *čidör | ||
| ‘moisture; moist, wet’ | *čiig | perhaps related to CT *čï: ‘moisture’ and/or *čï:g ‘dew’ | |
| ‘to be tired, exhausted; to become numb or stiff’ | *čile- (?*čïla-) | ||
| ‘to pick’ | *čilmö- | see *čölbe- | |
| ‘free time’ | *čilöe (?*čölee) | ||
| ‘marrow; bone containing marrow’ | *čimegen (?*čimögen) | ||
| ‘to pinch, nip’ | *čimki- | ||
| ‘to pierce, puncture, perforate, make holes in’ | *čoal- | *čoara- ‘to be pierced, perforated, develop holes’ | |
| ‘lock’ | *čoarga / *čuurga | ||
| ‘heap, pile’ | *čogča | ||
| ‘to gather’ | *čogla- | Zie *čugla- | |
| ‘to peck, pick’ | *čokï- | ||
| ‘Venus’ | *čolban/*čolman | CT cognate *čolpan ‘id’ | |
| ‘few’ | *čöen | cf. also *üčüken | |
| ‘(wine) cup’ | *čögeče (?*čögüčeg) | ||
| ‘to pick, peck’ | *čölbe- ~ *čölme- | ||
| ‘to pick, pluck’ | *čömü- | perhaps related to *čimki- ‘to pinch’ and to *čölbe- | |
| ‘gall bladder’ | *čösün | see *sösün | |
| ‘to leak, drip’ | *čuburï- | ||
| ‘bundle’ | *čug | cf. CT *čug ‘id’ | |
| ‘to bundle; to put together; to gather, assemble’ | *čugla- | ||
| ‘chisel’ | *čüče | see *siüči | |
| ‘to be able to carry or bear, etc’ | *daa- | ||
| ‘two-year-old foal; foal’ | *daagan | cf. *unagan | |
| ‘(lump of) shaggy hair’ | *daakï | related to CT *yapaku ‘matted wool, etc’, or to CT *yapak | cf. *kumakï |
| ‘to be cold; to feel cold’ | *daara- | ||
| ‘saddle gall, sore on an animal’s back’ | *daarï | related to Turkic *yagïr ‘id’ | |
| ‘to pass by, drop in; to bump into, run over; to insult’ | *daarï- | ||
| ‘to cross, pass; to exceed’ | *daba- | ||
| ‘(urinary) bladder’ | *dabasug ~ *dabusag (~ *dabasuŋ) | ||
| ‘double; row; layer; folded’ | *dabkur | cf. *dabta- ‘to repeat’ (not listed here) | |
| ‘salt’ | *dabusun | PM root may have been *dabu- | |
| ‘to follow’ | *daga- | in Bao and Kgj also ‘to resemble’ | |
| ‘war’ | *daïn | related to CT *yagï ‘enemy’ | |
| ‘enemy’ | *daïsun | ||
| ‘fur coat (with the fur outside), raincoat’ | *daku | related to CT *yagku ‘id’, from *yag- ‘to rain’ | |
| ‘sea’ | *dalaï | related to CT *taluy ‘id’, itself possibly a geographical name of Chinese origin | |
| ‘seventy’ | *dalan | related to *dolaan (< *daluan) ‘seven’ | |
| ‘shoulder-blade, scapula’ | *dalu | ||
| ‘to carry on a carrying-pole, in a sedan chair, etc’ | *damla- | ||
| ‘lump, clod’ | *daŋgal | ||
| ‘wine (from fruit or cereals)’ | *darasun | ||
| ‘to press, push down, suppress’ | *daru- | ||
| ‘sound; voice; song’ | *daun | ||
| ‘to imitate, follow the example of’ | *daurïa- | ||
| ‘to be finished; to suffer, endure’ | *daus- | ||
| ‘to spread’ | *debis- (>*debüs-) | ||
| ‘mattress, bedding’ | *debisker | derived from *debis- | |
| ‘saddle cushion, undersaddle’ | *debse | probably related to *debis- | |
| ‘to be soaked, to be steeped’ | *debte- | ||
| ‘clothes, garment, jacket, coat, gown’ | *deel | ||
| ‘above, upper’ | *deere | perhaps from a PM root *depe- > *dehe- | |
| ‘rope, cord’ | *deesün | possibly related to the Turkic *yep, a NE variant of *yïp ‘thread’ | |
| ‘mane’ | *del | related to CT *ye:l ‘id’ | |
| ‘to wave, to fan’ | *delbi- | could be a borrowing from Turkic *yelpi- ‘id’ | *delbiür ‘fan’ |
| ‘to beat’ | *deled- | variant *deles- | |
| ‘udder’ | *deleŋ | Turkic cognate *yelin ‘id’ | |
| ‘to spread’ | *delge- | ||
| ‘spleen’ | *deliün | ||
| ‘pillow’ | *dere | ||
| ‘name of several reeds and grasses; rush mat’ | *deresün | probably related to CT *yez | |
| ‘younger sibling’ | *deü | ||
| ‘to hang up, suspend, attach’ | *deüǰile- | cf. *elgü- | |
| ‘to jump, leap’ | *deüli- | cf. *hüsür- | |
| ‘to carry sb/sth in front or behind while riding a horse’ | *deür- | possibly related to the Turkic form *ünger- (?*yünger-) | cf. *sundala- which occurs in similar meanings |
| ‘under’ | *doa-ra | ||
| ‘to gallop; to rush, charge, attack’ | *dobtul- | ||
| ‘to limp’ | *dogal- | *dogal-aŋ ‘limping, crippled’ | |
| ‘fierce, cruel’ | *dogsïn | ||
| ‘to lick’ | *dolïa- (> *dolaa-) | CT *yalga- ‘id’ (problematic) | |
| ‘seven’ | *dolaan | earlier (PM) *daluan | |
| ‘tale, legend, fairy tale’ | *domag | related to CT *yomak ‘fairy tale’ | in some languages ‘nonsense; mockery’ |
| ‘interior’ | *dota-r | *dota-ra ‘in, inside’ | |
| ‘forty’ | *döčin | ||
| ‘four’ | *dörben | related to *döčin ‘forty’ and *dönen ‘four-year-old’ (not listed) | |
| ‘nose ring, camel’s nose peg’ | *döre | ||
| ‘stirrup’ | *döree | may be related to CT *(y)üzeŋ(g)ü ‘id’ | |
| ‘anvil’ | *dösi | ||
| ‘directly; nearby’ | *döte | ||
| ‘fourth’ | *dötüer | cf. *dörben ‘four’ and *döčin ‘forty’, as well as *dönen ‘four-year-old’ (not listed) | |
| ‘warm’ | *dulaan | ||
| ‘middle’ | *dumda | possibly from a root *dum- + dat-loc ending | |
| ‘heart, mind; willingness; wish, desire; love, etc’ | *duran | ||
| ‘to drip, drop’ | *dusu- | cf. the caus. *dusaa- < *dusua- | |
| ‘to lack, to be insufficient’ | *duta- | ||
| ‘to flee’ | *dutaa- | cf. *horgu- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to shave’ | *düil- | possibly irregularly related to CT *yilü- ‘id’ | cf. *kïrga- |
| ‘deaf’ | *dülei | ||
| ‘to sell’ | *düre- | Other Mongolic languages use *kudaldu- | |
| ‘to be(come) full’ | *düür- | ||
| ‘full’ | *düüreŋ | from *düür- | |
| ‘chest’ | *ebčeün (~ *ebčiün) | perhaps related to *ebür ‘bosom’ | |
| ‘to break, destroy’ | *ebde- | ||
| ‘illness, disease’ | *ebečin | ||
| ‘to be ill; to hurt’ | *ebed- | ||
| ‘horn’ | *eber (?*heber) | ||
| ‘grass, weed’ | *ebesün | possibly from a PM root *ebe- + the (collective?) suffix *-sUn | |
| ‘to roll up, wrap up, fold’ | *ebke- | ||
| ‘to yawn’ | *ebsie- (?*hebsie-) | ||
| ‘knee’ | *ebüdüg | may be related to *emüdün ‘trousers’ | |
| ‘elderly man’ | *ebügen | ||
| ‘winter’ | *ebül/*öbül | see *übül | |
| ‘bosom’ | *ebür/*öber (?*h-) | possibly related to *ebčiün ‘chest’ | |
| ‘sunny spot; southern slope; front’ | *ebür/*öber (?*h-) | ||
| ‘to go’ | *eči- | may be related to CM *od- ‘to go’ | |
| ‘father’ | *ečige | ||
| ‘thing; goods, merchandise; material; fabric’ | *ed | related to CT *ed | originally probably a general term ‘goods’, in some modern languages also ‘fabric, textile’ |
| ‘to recover, heal, to come alive’ | *edege- | ||
| ‘now’ | *edüe (> *edee) and *odua (> *odaa) | ||
| ‘day’ | *edür/ödür | see *üdür | |
| ‘elder sister’ | *egeči | ||
| ‘such, this kind of’ | *eimü | from the pronominal (proximal demonstrative) root *e-, cf. also *ene ‘this’, *ende ‘here’, *ein ‘this way’ etc | |
| ‘like this, this way’ | *ein | Originated as a converb of *ei- ‘to do this way’. see *eimü | |
| ‘to do this way’ | *ein ki- | with several contractions and alterations; cf. *ein | |
| ‘master, owner, boss’ | *eǰen | ||
| ‘mother’ | *eke | ||
| ‘to bow, bend over, stoop’ | *ekeyü- | ||
| ‘twins’ | *ekir or *ikir | related to CT *ekkiz ‘id’, from *ekki ‘two’ | |
| ‘abundant, superfluous’ | *elbeg | ||
| ‘to tan (a hide)’ | *elde- | ||
| ‘to be worn down, to wear out’ | *ele- | ||
| ‘sand’ | *elesün | cf. *kumag ~ *kumakï ‘sand’ (not listed) | |
| ‘to hang, suspend’ | *elgü- | cf. *deüǰile- | |
| ‘donkey’ | *elǰigen | related to CT *ešgek | |
| ‘medicine, remedy’ | *em | related to CT *em ‘id’ | |
| ‘to fall apart, tumble down, collapse’ | *embüre- | cf. *nura- | |
| ‘egg’ | *emdege(i) | see *ömdegen | |
| ‘woman’ | *eme | ||
| ‘elderly woman; grandmother’ | *emegen | derived from *eme ‘woman’, cf. *berigen from *beri | |
| ‘saddle’ | *emeel | ||
| ‘to hold in the mouth’ | *emkü- | ||
| ‘wild, untamed’ | *emlig | cf. *oraa and *ǰerlig (the latter not listed here) | |
| ‘trousers’ | *emüdün | related to *emüs- | |
| ‘south; front, anterior’ | *emüne | ||
| ‘to put on, to wear (clothes)’ | *emüs- | ||
| ‘here’ | *ende | see s.v. *ene | |
| ‘this’ | *ene | cf. also *ende ‘here’, and several compounds with *ene listed as separate entries | |
| ‘today’ | *ene üdür | see *üdür ‘day’ | |
| ‘this year’ | *ene hon | see *hon ‘year’ | |
| ‘this evening, tonight’ | *ene üdesi(leŋ) | see *üdesi(leŋ) ‘evening’ | |
| ‘here’ | *ende | cf. *ene ‘this’ | |
| ‘front of a garment, flap of a garment’ | *eŋger and *eŋge | ||
| ‘blush; rouge’ | *eŋgeske | possibly related to CT *eŋ ‘cheek’ or ‘complexion’ | |
| ‘virtue; specialty; science, learning’ | *erdem | cf. CT *erdem | |
| ‘man’ | *ere | possibly related to CT *er ‘id’ | |
| ‘chin’ | *ereün | ||
| ‘shore, bank; cliff, precipice’ | *ergi (?*hergi) | ||
| ‘to lift, raise; to carry’ | *ergü- | ||
| ‘to look for; to want, wish for; to request’ | *eri- | ||
| ‘early; morning’ | *erte | related to CT *erte ‘id’ | |
| ‘skylight, smoke-hole (of a yurt)’ | *erüke | ||
| ‘health(y)’ | *erüül (?*ereül) | ||
| ‘not’ | *ese | ||
| ‘opposite side’ | *esergü (?*hesergü) | ||
| ‘kid (young goat)’ | *esige | perhaps borrowed from CT *ečkü ‘goat’ | cf. *ünügün ‘kid goat’ |
| ‘door’ | *eüden | ||
| ‘fat, grease’ | *eükün/*öekün | ||
| ‘cloud’ | *eülen | ||
| ‘to originate, arise, to be started’ | *eüs- ~*eüd- | ||
| ‘outside, exterior’ | *gada- | ||
| ‘stake’ | *gadasun | *kadaasun ‘nail’ | |
| ‘peg, stake, pole’ | *gadasun | ||
| ‘nail’ | *kadaasun | ||
| ‘stake’ | *gadasun | and/or *kadaasun ‘nail’ | |
| ‘alone’ | *gagča ~ *gaŋča | ||
| ‘land, earth, soil, place’ | *gaǰar | ||
| ‘pig’ | *gakaï | ||
| ‘fire’ | *gal | ||
| ‘goose’ | *galaun | ||
| ‘mad, insane’ | *galǰau | *galǰaura- ‘to go mad’ | |
| ‘hand’ | *gar | ||
| ‘to come out, appear’ | *gar- | ||
| ‘bitter, sour’ | *gasïun | ||
| ‘copper, brass’ | *gaulï | ||
| ‘stubble, cut grain stalks; shaft of a feather’ | *gaursun | ||
| ‘to say’ | *ge- | see *kee- | |
| ‘intestines, bowels; belly’ | *gedesün | PM root may have been *gede- or *gete- | |
| ‘to lose; to let go of; to put down’ | *gee- | ||
| ‘light, bright’ | *gegeen | related to the verb *gei- | |
| ‘to become light, to shine’ | *gei- | cf. *gegeen | |
| ‘guest’ | *geičin | perhaps derived from *keid | |
| ‘back of the head; neck’ | *geǰige | cf. *gedei- ‘to bend backwards’, *gedergü ‘backwards’ (not listed) | |
| ‘to follow, catch up with’ | *geli- | ||
| ‘defect, damage; disease; fault; trouble’ | *gem | apparently related to CT *kem ‘illness’ | |
| ‘male (of certain carnivores)’ | *gendü | ||
| ‘by accident; sudden(ly)’ | *genedte | ||
| ‘dwelling, house; Mongolian yurt’ | *ger | ||
| ‘brightness; torch; witness’ | *gere | ||
| ‘witness; proof’ | *gereči ~ *gerečin | ||
| ‘light, brightness’ | *gerel | possibly related to *gei- and *gegeen | |
| ‘(at) home’ | *gerte/*gertü | dative-locative case of *ger ‘house’ | |
| ‘to melt, thaw’ | *ges- | cf. *sïrï- ‘to melt’ | |
| ‘branch’ | *gesiün | cf. *salaa ‘id’ | |
| ‘to step on; to trample’ | *geški- | perhaps the original form is *geǰki- | |
| ‘stairs, (step of a) staircase, (rung of a) ladder’ | *geškiür | from *geški- ‘to step on’ | |
| ‘to cross, ford’ | *getül- | see ketül- | |
| ‘mare’ | *geün | cf. *baïtasun ‘id’ | |
| ‘smooth; glossy, shiny’ | *gïl- ~ *gil- ~ *ǰïl- ~ *ǰil- | ||
| ‘Chinese chives and other bulbous plants’ | *gogal, *gogasun, *gogad | ||
| ‘hook, crook’ | *goka | ||
| ‘river, brook, streamlet, ditch’ | *gol | cf. *mören | |
| ‘hook; buckle, clasp’ | *gorgï | ||
| ‘shallow’ | *göen (?and *göin) | ||
| ‘puppy; whelp, cub (of carnivores)’ | *gölige | ||
| ‘to braid’ | *göre- | see *gürü- ‘id’ | |
| ‘hunting; game’ | *göree | *göreesün ‘(wild) animal’ | |
| ‘thirty’ | *gučïn | *gurban ‘three’ and *gunan ‘three-year-old’ (not listed) | |
| ‘boots’ | *gudusun | see *gutusun | |
| ‘flour’ | *gulïr | see *gurïl | |
| ‘roe deer; roebuck’ | *gura | ||
| ‘three’ | *gurban | cf. *gučïn ‘thirty’, *gutuar ‘third’, and *gunan ‘three-year-old’ (the latter not listed) | |
| ‘flour’ | *gurïl | ||
| ‘third’ | *gutuar | cf. *gurban ‘three’ and *gučïn ‘thirty’ | |
| ‘boots’ | *gutusun and *gutul | as well as forms pointing at -d- rather then -t- | |
| ‘thigh’ | *guya | ||
| ‘to request, ask for, to beg’ | *guyu- | ||
| ‘to shake (off), to beat repeatedly, to thrash’ | *gübi- | ||
| ‘to run’ | *güi- | cf. *haul- ‘to run (mainly of animals)’ | |
| ‘to catch up with, to overtake; to be completed, fulfilled’ | *güiče- | perhaps related to *güi- ‘to run’ | |
| ‘belly, stomach’ | *güǰeen | ||
| ‘deep’ | *gün | ||
| ‘to plait, braid’ | *gürü- | ||
| ‘name of certain muscles, tendons, or veins’ | *güreen | ||
| ‘stone’ | *gürü (?*kürü) | cf. *čïlaun ‘stone’ | |
| ‘bran’ | *haaga | ||
| ‘spider’ | *haakaï and *haalǰïn | ||
| ‘fork, bifurcation’ | *hača | ||
| ‘grandson; nephew/niece’ | *hačï | related to CT *atï ‘grandson’ < ?*hatï | |
| ‘to grab, to hold in the hand’ | *hadku- | ||
| ‘palm of the hand’ | *halagan | ||
| ‘(small) hammer’ | *haluka | ||
| ‘to rest’ | *hamu- | the caus. *hamuul- | |
| ‘to put to rest, etc’ | *hamuul- | ||
| ‘to rest’ | *hamura- | ||
| ‘to be thirsty’ | *haŋga- ~ *haŋka- | cf. *umdaas- elsewhere | |
| ‘to close one’s eyes’ | *hanï- and *hanïï- | ||
| ‘eyebrow; eyelash’ | *hanïska | derived from *hanï- | |
| ‘ten’ | *harban | perhaps *ha + -rban or *har + -ban | |
| ‘dung; dried cow dung (used as fuel)’ | *hargal, *hargasun | related to CT *hark ‘dung’ | cf. *baasun, *komaul, *korgasun, *öteg (?), *ǰundaul |
| ‘to ask’ | *hasag- ~ *hasagu- ~ *hasau-, etc | cf. *sura- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to steal’ | *kulag- | ||
| ‘to run’ | *haul- | cf. *güi- ‘to run’ | |
| ‘air; steam; anger’ | *haur | ||
| ‘(double) handful’ | *hayag | ||
| ‘to become tired or emaciated’ | *heče- | ||
| ‘to cut’ | *hedke- (~ *heske- ~ *hečke-) | The original form may have been *heǰke-, perhaps from PM *peǰke- | |
| ‘to warm; to dry in the sun; to bake, roast’ | *hee- | cf. ?*hebür ‘sunny spot’ | |
| ‘to choke from crying, to have a fit of crying or a tantrum’ | *heere- | ||
| ‘to part, to leave each other’ | *heil- | ||
| ‘head’ | *hekin | cf. *teriün ‘head’, *tolagaï ‘head’, *tarïkï ‘brain’ | |
| ‘to float; to soar’ | *heli- | ||
| name for various birds of prey, usually ‘kite’ | *helie | possibly originally the nomen imperfecti of *heli- above | |
| ‘liver’ | *heligen | ||
| ‘butterfly’ | *herbeekei ~ *herbekei | ||
| ‘thumb’ | *herekei | PM root may have been *pere- > *here- | |
| ‘to turn, to move around’ | *hergi- | ||
| ‘prayer beads’ | *herike (?*herke) | ||
| ‘handle, grip’ | *hesi | ||
| ‘nest; grave’ | *heür | ||
| ‘shell (mollusk)’ | *hïbau (?*hïbuu) | ||
| ‘fly’ | *hïlua | cf. *sïmaul, *sona | |
| ‘bottom part, underside’ | *hïra (?) | ||
| ‘bottom, base, ground’ | *hïruar ~ *hïraur | ||
| ‘narrow, tight’ | *hïutan (~ *huïtan) | perhaps related to *hïbčau | |
| ‘to protect, defend, to help’ | *hibee- (~ *ihee-) | ||
| ‘to be ashamed’ | *hiče- | ||
| ‘willow’ | *hičesün (?*hičöesün) | ||
| ‘sword’ | *hildü | see *ildü ~ *üldü | |
| ‘tinea, ringworm (skin affliction)’ | *hilidün | ||
| ‘superfluous, etc.’ | *hileü | see *hüleü | |
| ‘to laugh’ | *hinie- | ||
| ‘edge of a knife’ | *hir | ||
| ‘to wish well, to bless’ | *hiröe- | ||
| ‘wish; prayer; curse’ | *hiröer/*hiröel | ||
| ‘star’ | *hodun | PM root may have been *po- | |
| ‘to cut, harvest; to fell’ | *hogtal- | intransitive *hogtara- and intensive *hogtačï- | |
| ‘forest’ | *hoï | ||
| ‘short’ | *hokar | ||
| ‘(the duration of a) year’ | *hon | cf. *ǰil ‘(calendar) year’, *nasun ‘year (of age)’ | |
| ‘crown of the head; top, summit’ | *horaï | ||
| ‘to turn (intr); to go’ | *horčï- | cf. *eči- (*očï-) and *od- | |
| ‘to turn (tr.)’ | *horčïul- | Caus. of *horčï- | |
| ‘to boil, to bubble, to gush forth’ | *horgï- | ||
| ‘to flee’ | *horgu- | cf. *dutaa- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to bind, wind, spin, wrap’ | *horïa- | ||
| ‘feather’ | *hödün | PM root *pɵ- | |
| ‘hoopoe’ | *höelǰin (*böelǰin, *höbelǰin, *böbelǰin) | ||
| ‘pus, matter’ | *höesün (*höersün) | cf. *idee ‘id’ | |
| ‘to hit, strike, beat’ | *högi- (?) | ||
| ‘to roll, tumble’ | *höŋkeri- | ||
| ‘drill, auger’ | *hörüm | ||
| ‘larva, maggot; worm’ | *hötü ~ *hödü | ||
| ‘root; origin, source’ | *huǰaur ~ *hïǰaur | see also *ündüsün for the literal meaning ‘root’ | |
| ‘tinder, etc’ | *hula (?*huula) | cf. *kete | |
| ‘red’ | *hulaan | ||
| ‘to become red’ | *hulaï- | ||
| ‘poplar, aspen’ | *hulïasun | ||
| ‘to swim’ | *humba- | ||
| ‘smoke’ | *hunïn | cf. *hutaa ‘smoke’ | |
| ‘to ride on horseback; to mount’ | *hunu- | ||
| ‘to break wind, fart’ | *huŋgu- | ||
| ‘fart’ | *huŋgusun | from *huŋgu- | |
| ‘lasso, noose, snare, trap’ | *huraka (?*hurïka) | ||
| ‘to turn (around) (intr)’ | *hurba- | ||
| ‘sling (for hurling stones), slingshot’ | *hurbï (?*hurbaï) | ||
| ‘downward; downstream’ | *huruu | cf. *dɔara, *hïra (s.v. *hïraur) | |
| ‘lip(s)’ | *huruul | cf. *kosïun ‘beak, snout’, and *kirbei ‘edge’ | |
| ‘thread’ | *hutasun | ||
| ‘to emit smoke’ | *hutu- | ||
| ‘smoke’ | *hutua (> *hutaa) | Elsewhere *hunïn is used | |
| ‘bag, sack’ | *huuta | ||
| ‘to tie, fasten’ | *huya- | cf. *kaa- | |
| ‘to patch, mend’ | *hüde- (?*hüdü-) | ||
| ‘patch (on clothes)’ | *hüdesün (perhaps *hüdeesün < *hüdüesün) | cf. *kalaasun | |
| ‘deep’ | *hügün | see *gün | |
| ‘tip, end’ | *hüǰüür (?*üǰüür) | compare variants of *üǰe- ‘to see’, *eüdün ‘door’ | |
| ‘bovine; ox’ | *hüker | related to CT *höküz ‘ox’ | |
| ‘to drive; to chase, pursue; to expel, drive out’ | *hülde- | ||
| ‘to remain, to be left’ | *hüle- | cf. *kočar- | |
| ‘superfluous, more than; surplus, excess’ | *hüleü/*hileü | ||
| ‘to blow’ | *hülie- (~ *hüile-) | ||
| ‘to fall apart, to become worn out or gappy’ | *hültüre- | ||
| ‘stinking, malodorous’ | *hümekei ~ *hümükei | probably derived from *hüü- ‘to rot’ and possibly also related to *höesün ‘pus’ | |
| ‘to wrinkle, shrivel, contract’ | *hümeri- | ||
| ‘fox’ | *hünegen | ||
| ‘ashes’ | *hünesün | ||
| ‘smell, odour, aroma’ | *hünir (?*hünür) | *hünirde-, *hünirte- ‘to smell (tr.)’ | |
| ‘to smell’ | *hünirte-) | ||
| ‘to smell (tr)’ | *hünis- ~ *hünüs- | ||
| ‘to crumple; to rub between the hands’ | *hüŋgü- | ||
| ‘seed; pip; fruit’ | *hüre | ||
| ‘to be startled, frightened (typically of animals)’ | *hürgü- | related to CT *hürk- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to rub (off) with the hands, to grind, etc’ | *hürü- | ||
| ‘hair’ | *hüsün | PM root may be *hü- (?*pü-) | |
| ‘to jump, leap’ | *hüsür- | ||
| ‘vagina’ | *hütügün | ||
| ‘to stink’ | *hüü- | and *höe- ‘to rot, fester’ (?) | |
| ‘(s)he, it’ | *ï (?) | genitive *ïnu | |
| ‘narrow, tight’ | *ïbčau | ||
| ‘shaman(ess)’ | *ïdugan | cf. *böe | |
| ‘to choose, select, distinguish’ | *ïlga- | cf. *soŋgu- | |
| ‘goat’ | *ïmaan | related to CT *(y)ïmga ‘id’ | |
| ‘hither, to this place’ | *ïnagsï | from a root *ïna- ‘this side’ | |
| ‘fawn, young deer or antelope’ | *ïnǰaga | ||
| ‘packsaddle’ | *ïŋgarčag | ||
| ‘melody, melodious; singing’ | *ïrau | CT *yïr-a-gu from CT *(y)ïr ‘song’ | |
| ‘omen, premonition, etc’ | *ïro | possibly related to CT *ïrk ‘id’ | |
| ‘soot’ | *ïsu (?) | see *is(ü) | |
| ‘hazel-grouse, partridge or other large member of the chicken family’ | *ïtau | ||
| ‘to flow (of milk from the udder)’ | *ibil- (?*ibel-) | ||
| ‘to eat’ | *ide- | ||
| ‘pus’ | *idee | cf. *höesün ‘id’ | |
| ‘spindle, spindle whorl’ | *ig (?*yig) | ||
| ‘twins’ | *iker | see *ekir | |
| ‘magic; sleight of hand, conjuring tricks’ | *ilbi | cf. Turkic *yelvi | |
| ‘to rub; to smooth with the hand’ | *ilbi- | ||
| ‘sword, sabre’ | *ildü | cf. CT *kïlïč ‘sword’, also used for ‘shuttle’ in several Turkic languages | with an early ‘prebroken’ variant *üldü. Both forms survive |
| ‘clear, visible, obvious, evident’ | *ile (?*hile) | ||
| ‘to go’ | *ile- | *ilee- (< causative) (and newly-formed *ile-ge-) ‘to send, dispatch’ | |
| ‘leopard, panther’ | *irbis | ||
| ‘to come’ | *ire- | ||
| ‘wether’ | *irge | related to CT *irk | |
| ‘people’ | *irgen | ||
| ‘to turn sour, ferment’ | *is- | caus. *iske-, and some further derivations | |
| ‘felt, felt blanket’ | *isegei ~ *sisegei | ||
| ‘to whistle’ | *iskir- | ||
| ‘soot, lampblack’ | *is or *isü or *isün or *ïsu ?? | ||
| ‘to believe, trust’ | *itege- | cf. *bisire- | |
| ‘species of falcon’ | *itelgü | ||
| ‘to tell, announce, indicate’ | *ǰaa- | ||
| ‘musk’ | *ǰaarï | see *ǰïarï | |
| ‘interval, spare time’ | *ǰab | ||
| ‘gap; gorge, ravine’ | *ǰaba | ||
| ‘insipid, tasteless’ | *ǰabaan | related to CT *yavgan | |
| ‘corner of the mouth’ | *ǰabaǰï | ||
| ‘to sit cross-legged’ | *ǰabïla- ~ *ǰamïla- | ||
| ‘crack, crevice; groin’ | *ǰamï, which stem may survive in MgrH ʒ́a:mi: X214 | ||
| ‘to lose, be lost (esp. of animals)’ | *ǰabka- | cf. also *ǰabkara- ‘to get lost, disappear’ | |
| ‘gap, crack; space or time between, interval’ | *ǰabsar | ||
| ‘to itch, tickle’ | *ǰagala- (and related formations) | ||
| ‘fish’ | *ǰagasun | ||
| ‘to chew’ | *ǰaǰïl- | ||
| ‘edge; collar’ | *ǰaka | CT *yaka ‘collar’ | |
| ‘space between’ | *ǰakaun | ||
| ‘(red) tassel’ | *ǰalaa | perhaps related to CT *yalïg ‘cock’s comb’ | |
| ‘young (person)’ | *ǰalau | related to CT *ya:š ‘id’ | probably from a stem *ǰala- |
| ‘to beg, request; to pray’ | *ǰalbarï- | cf. CT *yalvar- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to join, connect’ | *ǰalga- | ||
| ‘to swallow’ | *ǰalgï- ~ *ǰalkï- | ||
| ‘lazy’ | *ǰalkaï and *ǰalkau | cf. *kašaŋ ‘lazy’ | |
| ‘shrewd’ | *ǰalïkaï | ||
| ‘to beat, pound (usu. with an axe, hammer, etc)’ | *ǰančï- | seems to be influenced by *čabčï- ‘to chop’ | |
| ‘knot’ | *ǰaŋgï, *ǰaŋgïa | *ǰaŋgïd-, *ǰaŋgïla- ‘to tie a knot’ | |
| ‘hedgehog’ | *ǰarïa | ||
| ‘half (orig. adj)’ | *ǰarïm | cf. CT *ya:r-ïm from the verb *ya:r- ‘to split’ | *ǰarïm-dug/-tug ‘half (noun)’ |
| ‘groats; hail’ | *ǰarma | CT *ya:r-ma | cf. *möndür ‘hail’ |
| ‘to use; to employ; to slaughter’ | *ǰaru- | ||
| ‘to regulate, bring in order’ | *ǰasa- | in modern languages usually ‘to repair; to make, manufacture; to fix’ | |
| ‘to bite; to sting’ | *ǰau- | ||
| ‘mediator, go-between, matchmaker’ | *ǰaučï | possibly related to *ǰaura ‘space between’. cf. *ǰo(l)čïn ‘guest’ | |
| ‘lily bulb’ | *ǰaugasun | ||
| ‘heel (of foot or footwear)’ | *ǰauǰaï | cf. *ösegei ‘heel’ | |
| ‘hundred’ | *ǰaun | ||
| ‘space between’ | *ǰaura | cf. *ǰaučï ‘matchmaker’; possibly also related to *ǰab, *ǰabsar ‘interval’ | |
| ‘wolf’ | *ǰauraŋgaï/*ǰaurakaï | cf. *čïno | |
| ‘fate, destiny, luck, etc’ | *ǰayaan | ||
| ‘rust’ | *ǰebe (?*ǰebi) | ||
| ‘cousin’ | *ǰee | Turkic cognate *yegen ‘id’ | |
| ‘Mongolian gazelle (kind of antelope)’ | *ǰeeren | related to CT *yegren ‘id’ | |
| ‘long rope to which the tethers of cattle are attached’ | *ǰele (?*ǰelü) | related to CT *yelü ‘id’ | |
| ‘to wear (usu. an ornament)’ | *ǰeü- | cf. *emüs- ‘to wear (clothes)’ | |
| ‘dream’ | *ǰeüdün | ||
| ‘left; east’ | *ǰeün | cf. *solagaï ‘left’ | |
| ‘needle’ | *ǰeün | ||
| ‘to announce, etc’ | *ǰïa- | see *ǰaa- | |
| ‘musk’ | *ǰïar(ï) (> *ǰaar(ï)) | ||
| ‘spear, lance’ | *ǰïda | ||
| ‘fish’ | *ǰïgasun | see *ǰagasun | |
| ‘ravine, gorge, chasm, abyss’ | *ǰïlga | ||
| ‘reins’ | *ǰïloa | ||
| ‘glue, paste’ | *ǰïlsun | ||
| ‘to be glad or happy’ | *ǰïrga- | ||
| ‘six’ | *ǰïrguan | ||
| ‘sixty’ | *ǰïran | related to *ǰïrguan ‘six’ | |
| ‘amble; ambler’ | *ǰïroa | ||
| ‘to paint; to write’ | *ǰïru- | ||
| ‘two’ | *ǰi- | see *ǰitüer ‘second’ | |
| ‘to stretch, extend’ | *ǰii- | cf. *sun- | |
| ‘(calendar) year, year of the Twelve Animal Cycle’ | *ǰil | cf. *hon ‘(duration of a ) year’; *nasun ‘(year of) age’ | |
| ‘to cut’ | ?*ǰir- | ||
| ‘bellyband on the left side of the saddle’ | *ǰirim | cf. *olaŋ | |
| ‘heart’ | *ǰirüken | see *ǰürüken | |
| ‘to cut, slice, split’ | *ǰisü- | ||
| ‘colour (esp. of the hair of an animal); complexion; appearance, looks’ | *ǰisün | ||
| ‘second; co-wife’ | *ǰitüer | and *ǰitüen ‘competition’ | |
| ‘wing’ | *ǰiür | ||
| ‘to suffer, to worry’ | *ǰoba- | ||
| ‘guest’ | *ǰočïn | related to CT *yo:l-čï ‘traveller’ < *yo:l ‘road’ | |
| ‘to fit, to suit’ | *ǰokï- | ||
| ‘to meet; to visit’ | *ǰolga- | Turkic *yo:l-uk- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to plane, shave, peel, pare off’ | *ǰor- | cf. *ǰir- and *ǰisü | |
| ‘to point at’ | *ǰorï- | with derived meanings like ‘to aim’ and ‘to intend’ | |
| ‘ambler’ | *ǰoraa | see *ǰïroa | |
| ‘right, correct, proper’ | *ǰöb | ||
| ‘to carry, transport’ | *ǰöe- | ||
| ‘soft’ | *ǰöelen (?*ǰeülen) | ||
| ‘cold’ | *ǰöen | central Mongolic *ǰöeg ‘lukewarm, cool’ | |
| ‘transverse; askew; stubborn’ | *ǰöriü | ||
| ‘thick; dense’ | *ǰuǰaan | ||
| ‘(oil) lamp’ | *ǰula | cf. CT *yula ‘id’ | |
| ‘fontanel, sinciput’ | *ǰulaï (*ǰula) | ||
| ‘young of an animal, offspring’ | *ǰulǰaga(n) | ||
| ‘suslik (ground squirrel)’ | *ǰumuran | ||
| ‘summer’ | *ǰun | cf. *naǰïr ‘id’ | |
| ‘suslik’ | *ǰuruman | see *ǰumuran | |
| ‘to mix, stir; to knead’ | *ǰuura- | CT equivalent *yogur- ‘id’ | |
| ‘direction, side’ | *ǰüg | ||
| ‘heart’ | *ǰürüken | Turkic cognate *yürek ‘id’ | |
| ‘where?’ | *kaa, *kaana | ||
| ‘to close, enclose; to block, shut off’ | *kaa- | ||
| ‘khan, king, emperor’ | *kaan | Widespread Eurasian word | |
| ‘to roast, burn’ | *kaarï- | in some languages ‘to cauterize, to geld’ | |
| ‘wild boar’ | *kaban/*kabaŋ | ||
| ‘nose’ | *kabar/*kamar | ||
| ‘to swell’ | *kabïd- (*kabud-) | ||
| ‘rib; side, vicinity’ | *kabïrga | also used as postposition | |
| ‘rib; side’ | *kabïsun | cf. *kabïrga | |
| ‘flat’ | *kabtagaï | cf. *kabtasun ‘board’ | |
| ‘board’, often the ‘sideboards supporting the saddle’ | *kabtasun | cf. *kabtagaï | |
| ‘bag, sack, (tobacco) pouch’ | *kabturga | may be related to CT *ka:p ‘bag’ | |
| ‘spring (season)’ | *kabur | ||
| ‘cheek(s)’ | *kačar | ||
| ‘rock; overhanging rock; ravine’ | *kada | ||
| ‘to nail down; to sew on (a button or a sole)’ | *kada- | related to CT *kadu- (some languages suggest *kadï-) | cf. *kadaasun ‘nail’ |
| ‘bit of a horse’s bridle’ | *kadaar | see *kaǰaar | |
| ‘nail’ | *kadaasun | derives from *kada- ‘to nail’ | |
| ‘to prick, sting, stab, pierce’ | *kadku- | ||
| ‘to cut, harvest’ | *kadu- | ||
| ‘sickle’ | *kaduur | derived from *kadu- | |
| ‘family-in-law’, and ‘-in-law’ as added to kinship terms. | *kadum | Similar to the synonymous CT *kadïn | |
| ‘to separate; to part with, etc’ | *kagača- | probably related to *kagal-, *kagara- | |
| ‘to break, split, burst (tr.)’ | *kagal- | ||
| ‘to break, split, burst (intr.)’ | *kagara- | ||
| ‘scissors’ | *kaïčï | ||
| ‘to make a noise; to shout; to cry’ | *kaïla- | ||
| ‘elm tree’ | *kaïlasun | ||
| ‘yak’ | *kaïnag (?and *kaïnug) | ||
| ‘(what a) pity, mercy, care, affection’ | *kaïran | ||
| ‘fish’s scale’ | *kaïrsun | ||
| ‘to bite’ | *kaǰa- | ||
| ‘bit of a horse’s bridle’ | *kaǰaar/*kadaar (<*kadïar/*kadaar) | probably related to *kaǰa- ‘to bite’ | |
| ‘to choke (intr), to be suffocated; for sth to be stuck in one’s throat’ | *kaka- | ||
| ‘hot’ | *kalaun | from the verb *kala- | |
| ‘spoon’ | *kalbuga | Turkic *kašuk; perhaps of Tibetan origin | |
| ‘wild onion and similar plants’ | *kalïar, *kalïarsun | ||
| ‘bark, rind, peel, outer covering, thin skin’ | *kalïsun | ||
| ‘to glide, slip’ | *kaltara-, *kaltarï- | ||
| ‘(of eyes) to be dazzled; (of teeth) to tingle or to feel rough (e.g. after eating sth. sour)’ | *kama- ~ *kaba- | cf. CT *kama- | |
| ‘sleeve’ | *kamčuï ~ *kamčun | ||
| ‘together; at the same time’ | *kamtu | ||
| ‘all’ | *kamug | cf. Turkic kamug < kamag, a Middle Persian loanword | |
| ‘to cough’ | *kanïa- | *kanaa- in EYu, MgrH, Bao, and Dgx | |
| ‘black’ | *kara | related to Turkic *kara | |
| ‘to look at’ | *kara- | ||
| ‘placenta, afterbirth (of an animal)’ | *karbïsun | reminiscent of *karbïn ~ *arbïn ‘belly fat’ (not listed) | |
| ‘to shoot’ | *karbu- | Monguoric *karmu- | |
| ‘ballista’ | *karbuur | see *hurbï | |
| ‘to return’ | *karï- | ||
| ‘to abuse, swear, curse’ | *karïa- | related to CT *karga- ‘id’ | cf. *sögee-, *hiröe- |
| ‘swallow’ | *karïačaï | reminiscent of Turkic *karlïgač ~ *kargïlač ‘id’ | |
| ‘lazy, slow (usu. of animals)’ | *kašaŋ | from Turkic *kašaŋ ‘id’ | cf. *ǰalkaï and *ǰalkau |
| ‘hard’, also ‘difficult’ | *katau | cf. CT *katïg ‘hard’ from the verb *kat- | from CM *kata- ‘to be or become hard or dry’ |
| ‘empress; wife; woman’ | *katun | CT *ka:tun. Widespread in Asia. | |
| ‘all, everybody’ | *kau and/or *koa | may be related to CT *kop ‘all’ | CM form *koa |
| ‘old’ | *kaučïn | ||
| ‘to peel, to skin’ | *kaul- | ||
| ‘to shed (skin)’ | *kaura- | cf. *koltul- | |
| ‘law, rule’ | *kaulï | ||
| ‘to stir-fry’ | *kaur- | cf. CT *kagur- | cf. *kaarɪ- |
| ‘file (the tool)’ | *kauraï | ||
| ‘dry’ | *kauraï | see *kuuraï | |
| ‘chaff, bran, husks’ | *kebeg | ||
| ‘fragile, brittle, crisp’ | *kebereg and *keüreg | from Turkic *kevrek | |
| ‘to chew; to ruminate’ | *kebi- | cf. CT *kev- | |
| ‘shop’ | *kebid | see *keid | |
| ‘to lie down’ | *kebte- | ||
| ‘slope’ | *keče | ||
| ‘how much, how many’ | *kedüi and *kedün | related to *ken ‘who’ and *keǰie ‘when’ | |
| ‘to say’ | *kee- | Modern languages suggest a form *ge- | |
| ‘belly, abdomen’ | *keeli | PM *keheli < *kepeli | |
| ‘animal colour (usu. varieties of brown)’ | *keer | ||
| ‘field, plain, steppe’ | *keere (?*keer) | PM variants *keper ~ *keber | |
| ‘spoke’ | *kegesün | ||
| ‘wind’ | *kei | cf. *salkïn ‘wind’ | |
| ‘temple’ and *kebid ‘shop’ | *keid | from CT *kepit < Iranian | |
| ‘when’ | *keǰie > *keǰee | related to *kedün ‘how many’ and *ken ‘who’ | |
| ‘to belch, burp’ | *kekere- or *kekire- | related to CT *ke:kir- | |
| ‘tongue; speech, language’ | *kelen | ||
| ‘to speak’ | *kele- (< *kelele-) | All peripheral languages have the shortened form | |
| ‘to gnaw’ | *kemile- | probably derived from a noun *kemi ‘soft bone’ | |
| ‘who’ | *ken | related to *kedün ‘how many’ and *keǰie ‘when’ | |
| ‘drum’ | *keŋgerge | ||
| ‘to cut, mince’ | *kerči- | cf. CT *kert- ‘id’ | |
| ‘need, necessity; matter, affair, business’ | *kereg | cf. CT *kergek > *kerek ‘id’ | |
| ‘to use, employ; to need, want’ | *keregle- | ||
| ‘to quarrel, have an argument’ | *kereldü- | Reciprocal of *kere- ‘to fight’ | |
| ‘crow’ | *kerie | ||
| ‘part, piece’ | *keseg | cf. *kes-ek from *kes ‘piece’, homophone of *kes- to cut’ | |
| ‘part, share, lot, fate’ | *kesig | CT *kes-ig from *kes- ‘to cut’ | |
| ‘to lie down’ | *kete- | see *kebte- | |
| ‘steel for striking fire’ | *kete | cf. *čakïur | |
| ‘to cross, to wade across’ | *ketül- | ||
| ‘child’ | *keü, *keüken | listed under *köbeün | |
| ‘to kill, massacre’ | *kïdu- | ||
| ‘side, edge, border’ | *kïǰaar | ||
| ‘easy’ | *kïlbar | ||
| ‘coarse hair’ | *kïlgasun | related to CT *kïl | cf. *hüsün, *noasun |
| ‘cheap’ | *kïmda | ||
| ‘nail, claw’, sometimes ‘hoof’ | *kïmusun | ||
| ‘hoar-frost’ | *kïrau | from CT *kïr-a-gu ‘id’ | |
| ‘to shave, shear, scrape’ | *kïrga- | cf. CT *kïrk- ‘id’ | |
| ‘name of some birds of prey’ | *kïrguï | cf. CT *kïrguy | |
| ‘pheasant’ | *kïrgaul ~ *kurgaul | ||
| ‘penis’ | *kïrǰaŋ | with several other meanings in central Mongolic | |
| ‘fine snow’ | *kïrmag | ||
| ‘to scrape’ | *kïsu- | ||
| ‘infertile, barren’ | *kïsuraŋ | related to CT *kïsïr, *kïsrak | |
| ‘Chinese’ | *kïtad | apparently from Turkic *kïtay > CT *kïtañ | |
| ‘knife’ | *kïtuga(ï) | ||
| ‘nit’ | *kïursun | ||
| ‘to do’ | *ki- | in Dag also ‘to write’, under Tungusic influence (e.g. Manchu ara- ‘to do; to write’) | |
| ‘to be’ | *a- | ||
| ‘to pour’ | *ki- | cf. *čïdku-, *tüsür-, *yeü- | |
| ‘edge’ | *kirbei | ||
| ‘saw’ | *kirüe > *kiröe | ||
| ‘all’ | *koa | see *kau | |
| ‘to dry (intr), wither’ | *koa- | ||
| ‘throat’ and *koala(ï) ‘food’ | *koala(ï) | ||
| ‘two’ | *koar | see *koyar | |
| ‘dry’ | *koasun | see *koasun ‘empty’ | |
| ‘empty’ | *koasun | likely to be the same word as *koasun ‘dry’ | |
| ‘to remain’ | *kočar- | ||
| ‘plant waste, sweepings, garbage, filth’ | *kog | ||
| ‘northern side; seat of honour’ | *koïmar | probably related to *koï- ‘behind; north’, but the suffix is unclear | |
| ‘back, posterior side, behind, later, etc’ | *koïna | There are many other derivations of the same stem *koïgsï ‘backwards’, *koïtu ‘posterior (adj)’ (not listed) | |
| ‘far’ | *kola | cf. *alus ‘far’ (not listed here) | |
| ‘unpleasant smell, smell of sweat’ | *kolaŋsa (?) | ||
| ‘to connect, join, unite’ | *kolba- | cf. *ǰalga- | |
| ‘to mix’ | *kolï- | ||
| ‘to peel, to skin’ | *koltul- | with intr. counterpart *koltura- ‘to peel off, fall off, etc’; cf. *kaul- | |
| ‘saddle pad, felt under the packsaddle’ | *kom | ||
| ‘horse dung’ | *komaul ~ *komual | cf. Turkic *komuk | cf. for a parallel case *ǰundaul (as in SH) corresponding to CT *yundak |
| ‘millet’ | *konag | entered from Turkic in recent centuries | |
| ‘fallow, light bay, etc’ | *koŋgar | cf. CT *koŋur | |
| ‘bell’ | *koŋka | ||
| ‘sheep’ | *konïn | related to CT *ko:ñ | |
| ‘colon; anus’ | *konǰïasun, *kondasun | ||
| ‘buttocks, hindquarters’ | *koŋgaï, *kondaska; *kondarčag, all with meanings like | ||
| ‘poison’ | *kora | ||
| ‘insect/worm’ | *korakaï | PM root may be *kora- | |
| ‘sheep, goat, or camel dung’ | *korgal, *korgasun | ||
| ‘courtyard; enclosure (usu. for keeping livestock in)’ | *korïan | from *korï- ‘to protect’ | |
| ‘twenty’ | *korïn | related to *koar | |
| ‘skirt, lower hem’ | *kormaï | ||
| ‘pair; double’ | *koš (> *kos) | probably adopted from Turkic *koš | |
| ‘bill, beak’ | *kosïun | ||
| ‘enclosure; walled town’ | *kotan | ||
| ‘two’ | *koyar (?~ *koar) | cf. *korïn ‘twenty’; perhaps related to *koï- ‘after’. Endemic, unless in some way related to *kos | |
| ‘bowstring’ | *köbči | ||
| ‘boy, child’ | *köbeün, *köün, *keü | ||
| ‘children (sons and daughters)’ | *köbeün ökin and/or *keü ökin | ||
| ‘child’ | *keüken | diminutive of *keü | |
| ‘hazel grouse’ | *ködee (?) | ||
| ‘to move (intr)’ | *ködel- | ||
| ‘soot (usu. on the bottom of a pan)’ | *köe | ||
| ‘to foam; to swell’ | *köe- | cf. CT *köp-ük ‘foam’, *köpür- ‘to foam’ | |
| ‘bridge’ | *köerge (?*küürge) | related to CT *köprüg ‘id’ | |
| ‘bellows’ | *köerge (?*küürge) | related to CT *kö:rk ‘id’ | |
| ‘foam, froth’ | *köesün | derived from *köe | |
| ‘old (animate)’ | *kögsin | ||
| ‘navel, umbilicus; umbilical cord’ | *köi, *köisün | ||
| ‘cold’ | *köiten | ||
| ‘blue, green’ | *köke | cf. CT *kö:k ‘id’ | |
| ‘to suck the breast’ | *köke- | see *köken | |
| ‘breast’ | *köken | see *köke- | |
| ‘forelock of a horse; braid of hair’ | *kökül | ||
| ‘leather vessel for liquids; snuffbottle’ | *köküür | cf. *köerge | |
| ‘foot’, often also ‘leg’ | *köl | ||
| ‘to harness an animal (to a cart or plough)’ | *köl- (?) | ||
| ‘to roll’ | *kölberi- | see *körbe- | |
| ‘to freeze’ | *kölde- | perhaps from the same root as *kör-, *kösi- (not listed here) ‘to freeze’, *köiten ‘cold’ | |
| ‘sweat’ | *kölesün | ||
| ‘to harness’ | *kölle- (?) | see *köl- | |
| ‘to put upside down; to overturn, topple’ | *kömeri- | ||
| ‘eyebrow’ | *kömeske | cf. *hanïska | |
| ‘breast strap of a horse’s harness’ | *kömüldürge | related to CT *kömüldürük < *köŋül- ‘heart’ | |
| ‘trunk, chest’ | *kömürge | ||
| ‘horizontal, across, transverse’ | *köndelen | ||
| ‘yeast, leaven’ | *könerge ~ *köreŋge | ||
| ‘blanket, quilt’ | *könǰile(n) | ||
| ‘hollow, empty’ | *köŋdei | ||
| ‘light(weight)’ | *köŋgen | ||
| ‘to freeze, to become cold’ | *kör- | perhaps related to *köiten and/or *kölde- | |
| ‘lamb’ | *körbe (?*kürbe) | ||
| ‘to roll on the back; to turn’ | *körbe- | ||
| ‘yeast’ | *köreŋge | see *könerge | |
| ‘crust’ | *körisün | ||
| ‘to mince, cut up’ | *köskele- | ||
| ‘to lead by the hand, to lead along’ | *kötel- | ||
| ‘clothes’ | *kubčasun | ||
| ‘part, share’ | *kubï | ||
| ‘to divide’ | *kubïa- | from *kubï | |
| ‘to change, turn into’ | *kubïl- | from a root *kubï- | |
| ‘ram’ | *kuča | related to CT *koč, *kočŋar/*kočgar | |
| ‘to bark’ | *kuča- | ||
| ‘to cover, wrap up in’ | *kučï- | ||
| ‘men related through the marriage of their children’ | *kuda | ||
| ‘women related through the marriage of their children’ | *kudagaï | ||
| ‘lie, falsehood’ | *kudal | ||
| ‘to trade, sell’ | *kudaldu- | cf. *düre- used instead in Dag, MgrM, and Mog | |
| ‘to stir, mix, blend’ | *kudku- | ||
| ‘well’ | *kudug | CT *kudug from *kud- ‘to pour’ | cf. *bulag ‘spring’ |
| ‘crupper’ | *kudurga | related to CT *kuduruk ‘tail’ and *kudušgun ‘crupper’ | |
| ‘to break (tr.)’ | *kugul- (?*kukul-) | ||
| ‘to break (intr.)’ | *kugura- (?*kukura-) | ||
| ‘sheath (of a knife)’ | *kuï | ||
| ‘thief; theft’ | *kulagaï | see *kulagu- | |
| ‘to steal’ | *kulag- ~ *kulagu- ~ *kulau- | related to *kulagaï | |
| ‘mouse, rat’ | *kulugana | possibly originally an Ersatzwort related to the verb *kulagu- ‘to steal’ | |
| ‘reed; bamboo’ | *kulusun | ||
| ‘to fold, to bundle together, wrap up; to gather’ | *kumï- (?~ *kumbï-) | ||
| ‘rain’ | *kura | ||
| ‘sharp’ | *kurča | cf. CT *kurč ‘tough, hard’ | |
| ‘fast, quick’ | *kurdun | ||
| ‘to gather (tr.)’ | *kurïa- | This is the caus. form of *kurï- ‘to gather (intr)’ | |
| ‘banquet, feast; wedding (banquet)’ | *kurïm | from *kurï- ‘to gather’, for which see *kurïa- | |
| ‘lamb’ | *kurïgan | ||
| ‘finger’ | *kuruun | ||
| ‘lute, stringed musical instrument’ | *kuur | cf. the cognate CT form *kopuz ‘id’ | |
| ‘dry’ | *kuuraï (?*kauraï) | ||
| ‘armour’ | *kuyag | related to CT *kuyag | |
| ‘strength, force’ | *küčün ~ *küčin | cf. CT *kü:č | |
| ‘to overtake’ | *küiče- | see *güiče- | |
| ‘incense, incense stick, perfumery’ | *küǰi | cf. Turkic *küži, probably itself a loanword | |
| ‘neck’ | *küǰüün | ||
| ‘to bind, tie, tighten’ | *küli- | ||
| ‘kind of onion’ | *kümeli | perhaps related to Turkic (NE) *kömürgen/*kövürgen | |
| ‘heavy’ | *kündü | ||
| ‘provisions’ | *künesün | ||
| ‘to reach, arrive’ | *kür- | ||
| ‘to send, deliver’ | *kürge- | Originally the caus. of *kür- ‘to reach’ | |
| ‘son-in-law; brother-in-law; husband’ | *küregen | Apart from Bur the modern languages have all developed from a disyllabic *kürgen | |
| ‘enclosure, etc’ | *kürien | cf. *korïa, *kotan | |
| ‘spade, shovel’ | *kürǰeg ~ *kürǰe | cf. CT *kürek ‘id’ < *küre- ‘to shovel; to row’ | |
| ‘to wish, desire’ | *küse- | CT *küse- ‘id’ | |
| ‘person, human being’ | *küün | ||
| ‘secretion of the eye’ | *lauka | see *nauka | |
| ‘mule’ | *lausa | Loanword from Chinese luózi ‘id’ | |
| ‘bottle’ | *loŋka | probably a foreign word; possibly a dissimilation of an earlier *nɔnka | |
| ‘here, take it, here you are’ | *maa ~ *maï | cf. the opposite term *alï ‘give me’ | |
| ‘to scratch’ | *maaǰï- | ||
| ‘to bleat’ | *maara- | see *maïla- | |
| ‘hat, headgear’ | *magalaï ~ *malagaï | ||
| ‘to praise’ | *magta- | ||
| ‘to bleat’ | *maïla- and *maara- | possible cognate CT *maŋra- (?< *baŋra-) | |
| ‘crooked; slanted’ | *maïrug | ||
| ‘hat’ | *makalaï | see *magalaï | |
| ‘domestic animals, livestock’ | *mal | Wanderwort probably borrowed from Turkic; also in Iranian; ultimately probably from Arabic māl | |
| ‘hat’ | *malagaï | see *magalaï | |
| ‘to dig, excavate’ | *malta- | ||
| ‘to guard, keep watch’ | *mana- | possibly from PM *bana- | |
| ‘morning; tomorrow’ | *managaar, *margaasï, etc | ||
| ‘mist, fog’ | *manan | cf. *budaŋ ‘mist’ | |
| ‘wild onion (and similar bulbous plants)’ | *maŋgïr, *maŋgï(r)sun | ||
| ‘a type of (usually female, many-headed, human-eating) demon; a large snake’ | *maŋgus | ||
| ‘forehead’ | *maŋlaï | ||
| ‘tomorrow’ | *margasï | see s.v. *managar | |
| ‘flesh; degree of fatness (usu. of livestock)’ | *marïan ~ *maraan | ||
| ‘to spy on, to peek; to stalk, approach stealthily’ | *marïa- | ||
| ‘to forget’ | *marta- (< *umarta-) | ||
| ‘bad’ | *mau | ||
| ‘to know’ | *mede- | ||
| ‘frog’ | *melekei | see *menekei | |
| ‘peace(ful), tranquil(ity); health, well-being; as usual’ | *mendü | ||
| ‘frog’ | *menekei | PM root may have been *mene- or *bene- | |
| ‘mole, birthmark’ | *meŋge | related to CT *beŋ ‘id’ | |
| ‘smart, wise, talented; good marksman’ | *mergen | ||
| ‘like, as... as’ | *metü | ||
| ‘meat’ | *mïkan | ||
| ‘whip’ | *mïlaa | see *mïnaa | |
| ‘whip’ | *mïnaa | ||
| ‘thousand’ | *mïŋgan | ||
| ‘tree; wood’ | *modun | ||
| ‘snake’ | *mogaï | ||
| ‘blunt, dull’ | *mogadur and *mokudag | ||
| ‘resin’ | *mokïn | see *bokï | |
| ‘future-’ | *mona | ||
| ‘Mongol’ | *moŋgal | cf. Dag maŋŋələm ‘broomcorn millet’ < *moŋgal amun | |
| ‘horse’ | *morïn | ||
| ‘foliage’ | *möčir | cf. *nabčïn ‘leaf’, *salaa ‘branch’ | |
| ‘rim of a wheel’ | *möer | ||
| ‘to moo, low’ | *möere- | may be related to the synonymous Turkic *müŋre- | Ultimately an onomatopoeic |
| ‘cartilage, gristle’ | *möersün ~ *möŋgersün | ||
| ‘to trace’ | *möǰki- | possibly in some way related to *mör ‘track, etc’ | |
| ‘to crawl, creep, clamber’ | *mölkü- | ||
| ‘ice’ | *mölsün | PM root may be *möl- | |
| ‘to take off, undo’ | *möltül- | *möltüre- ‘to fall off, come loose’ | |
| ‘real, true; the same, this very; it is so’ | *mön | ||
| ‘hail’ | *möndür | Somehow related to *mölsün ‘ice’? cf. the Shirongol word *ǰarma | |
| ‘cartilage, gristle’ | *möŋgersün | see *möersün | |
| ‘silver’ | *möŋgün (?and *meŋgü) | ||
| ‘track, trail; path, road’ | *mör | ||
| ‘river’ | *mören | Several modern forms suggest *müren | |
| ‘to touch with one’s forehead; to bow; to pray; to butt; to run into sb’ | *mörgü- | MMo and the Shirongol languages point at a CM *mürgü- | |
| ‘shoulder’ | *möri ~ *mörü | cf. *dalu ‘shoulder-blade’ | |
| ‘to trace’ | *möški- | see *möǰki- | |
| ‘blunt’ | *mukur | cf. the verb *moku- (not listed); see *mokudag above | |
| ‘crooked, slanted’ | *muruï ~ *murïu | cf. Baoanic *maïrug ‘id’ | |
| ‘to twist’ | *muškï- | ||
| ‘to bow, etc’ | *mürgü- | see *mörgü- | |
| ‘this side’ | *naa- | see *ïna- | |
| ‘to play’ | *naad- | ||
| ‘leaf, foliage’ | *nabčïn | cf. CM *nabaa ~ *namaa ‘foliage’ | |
| ‘maternal uncle’ | *nagaču | ||
| ‘eight’ | *naïman | cf. *nayan ‘eighty’ | |
| ‘harmony; joyous gathering, feast’ | *naïr | see *naïra- | |
| ‘to mix, combine (intr), to be in harmony’ | *naïra- | ||
| ‘to sneeze’ | *naïta- | Many languages suggest a pseudo-causative form *naïtaa- | |
| ‘lazy’ | *naǰagaï | see *nasïgaï | |
| ‘summer’ | *naǰïr | cf. the more common CM *ǰun ‘summer’ | |
| ‘gentle, quiet; calm, tame; honest’ | *namukan > *nomukan | ||
| ‘autumn, fall’ | *namur | ||
| ‘sun’ | *naran | ||
| ‘thin, fine (not coarse)’ | *narïn | ||
| ‘slow, lazy’ | *nasïgaï | cf. the synonyms *ǰalkaï and *kašaŋ | |
| ‘(year of) age’ | *nasun | may be from CT *ya:š ‘id’ | cf. *hon ‘(the duration of a) year’, *ǰil ‘(calendar) year’ |
| ‘to aim, to hit (a target)’ | *nau- (?*no-) | ||
| ‘rheum, mucus discharged by the eye’ | *nauka | ||
| ‘lake, pond’ | *naur | ||
| ‘eighty’ | *nayan | cf. *naïman ‘eight’ | |
| ‘to open’ | *nee- | ||
| ‘to gather, unite, join; to mix’ | *neile- | derived from *nei ‘agreement, etc’, attested in the central languages | |
| ‘to weave’ | *neke- | ||
| ‘(garment made of) sheepskin’ | *nekei | ||
| ‘illegitimate child’ | *nekelei | ||
| ‘one’ | *neken | see *niken | |
| ‘to cover (with a blanket, etc)’ | *nembe- ~ *nemle- | ||
| ‘cover; blanket’ | *nembee ~ *nemlee, *nembesün ~ *nemlesün, etc | from *nembe- ‘to cover’ | |
| ‘to add’ | *neme- | ||
| ‘to search’ | *neŋǰi- ~ *negǰi- | ||
| ‘name’ | *nere | ||
| ‘to press down, to fit into, to put sth on sth’ | *nere- | ||
| ‘to move, nomadize’ | *neü- | ||
| ‘charcoal’ | *neüresün | ||
| ‘to be sticky; to stick, paste, glue’ | *nïa- | ||
| ‘last year’ | *nïdanï hon | ||
| ‘fist’ | *nïdurga | related to CT *yïdruk ‘id’ | |
| ‘spinal marrow’ | *nïgursun | see *nugursun | |
| ‘to rub, press, knead’ | *nïku- | ||
| ‘tears’ | *nïlbusun | cf. also the (less widespread) verb *nïlbu- ‘to spit’ | |
| ‘the youngest (child of a family), baby’ | *nïlka | possibly in some way related to CT *ya:š ‘young’, but CM *ǰalau ‘young’ is a more likely cognate of this CT word | |
| ‘newly-born’ | *nïraï | ||
| ‘back’ | *nïruun | ||
| ‘to fly’ | *nïs-/*nis- | ||
| ‘snot, nasal mucus’ | *nïsun | perhaps related to *nii- ‘to blow one’s nose’. cf. also *nïsukaï ‘runny-nosed (person)’ | |
| ‘to hide’ | *nïu- | ||
| ‘boy’ | *nïun | cf. *köbeün ‘son’ | |
| ‘face’ | *nïur | ||
| ‘naked, bare’ | *ničügün | ||
| ‘to pound, crush’ | *nidü- | ||
| ‘eye’ | *nidün | PM root may have been *ni- | |
| ‘to blow one’s nose’ | *nii- | perhaps from *nïï-, if related to *nïsun ‘snot’ above | |
| ‘one each’ | *niǰiel | ||
| ‘one’ | *niken ~ *neken ~ *negen ~ *nige | ||
| ‘thin, flimsy, fine’ | *nimgen | ||
| ‘wool’ | *noasun | see *nogasun | |
| ‘green’ | *nogaan | ||
| ‘wool’ | *nogasun, *noasun, *uŋgasun | related to CT *yuŋ ‘id’ | |
| ‘halter’ | *nogta | ||
| ‘sleep’ | *noïr | with the additional meaning ‘pancreas’ | |
| ‘wet’ | *noïtan | perhaps related to *nor- ‘to become wet’ | |
| ‘dog’ | *nokaï | PM root may be *no- | |
| ‘doctrine; religion; scripture, book’ | *nom | foreign word, ultimately Greek | |
| ‘mole; vole; zokor’ | *noman | Often used with *sokar ‘blind’ (which is apparently the origin of the international name zokor) | |
| ‘gentle’ | *nomukan | see *namukan | |
| ‘to become wet, soaked’ | *nor- | perhaps related to *noïtan ‘wet’ | |
| ‘lord, chief’ | *noyan | ||
| ‘to pass’ | *nögči- | The central forms with -c- suggest *nögče- | |
| ‘other’ | *nögee (?*nökee) | Also compare the functional development of *öer- ‘self’ | |
| ‘friend; spouse’ | *nöker | ||
| ‘to patch’ | *nöke- | *nöke-esün ‘patch’; cf. *hüde- ‘to patch’, *kalaasun ‘patch’ | |
| ‘duck’ | *nugasun | ||
| ‘to be bent, to be folded’ | *nugura- | ||
| ‘spinal marrow’ | *nugursun | ||
| ‘bow’ | *numun | ||
| ‘to collapse, crumble’ | *nura- | cf. *embüre-, *yeüre- | |
| ‘camp; homeland, region’ | *nutug (?) | cf. *(n)uŋgasun ‘wool’ | |
| ‘hole’ | *nüken | The QG languages mostly favour a CM *nöken | |
| ‘fat, oil’ | *nümǰige | ||
| ‘to take a sip, drink’ | *oačï- | Turkic counterpart *avurtla- | |
| ‘adze’ | *oalï | ||
| ‘stone heap, shamanistic cairn’ | *obaa | ||
| ‘family name; clan’ | *obag | see *omag | |
| ‘to go’ | *očï- | see *eči | |
| ‘to go’ | *od- | ||
| ‘now’ | *odua | see *edüe | |
| ‘to vomit, throw up’ | *ogsï- | cf. the more common verb *böelǰi- ‘id’ | |
| ‘thought, intellect’ | *oïn | ||
| ‘nearby’ | *oïra | cf. the (near) synonymous *čaada in Baoanic, and *döte | |
| ‘penis’ | *oǰagaï | cf. *kïrǰaŋ | |
| ‘to have sexual intercourse’ | *oka- (?*hoka-) | ||
| ‘daughter, girl’ | *okïn | see *ökin | |
| ‘to find; to get, obtain’ | *ol- | ||
| ‘many’ | *olan | ||
| ‘bellyband (of a horse)’ | *olaŋ | perhaps related to CT *kolan (?*kolaŋ) ‘saddle-girth’ | |
| ‘hemp’ | *olusun | ||
| ‘clan, family; family name’ | *omag ~ *obag | ||
| ‘courage; arrogance, haughtiness’ | *omag | ||
| ‘boat; trough’ | *oŋgača | ||
| ‘notch on an arrow’ | *onï/*ona (?*honï) | cf. also *onubčï (?) ‘knife for making notches in arrows’ | |
| ‘track, trace, footprint, fingerprint’ | *ora | ||
| ‘to enter’ | *ora- | ||
| ‘wild, untamed, undomesticated’ | *oraa (?*orïa) | cf. *emlig | |
| ‘evening; late’ | *oraï | ||
| ‘place, spot; seat; throne; bed; country’ | *oran | cf. CT *orun ‘place’ | |
| ‘to throw, cast away; to abandon, release; to put’ | *orkï- | cf. *soŋgu- which is spelled so’onggu- in SH | |
| ‘to sew’ | *oya- | ||
| ‘bosom’ | *öber, *öbür | see *ebür | |
| ‘southern slope’ | *öbür | see *ebür | |
| ‘few’ | *öčeen | see *čöen | |
| ‘yesterday’ | *öčügedür (< *öčigen üdür) | ||
| ‘little, small’ | *öčüken | see *üčüken | |
| ‘thick, dense’ | *ödken | may go back to a PM *öčken (*öǰken) | |
| ‘kind of bread or cake’ | *ödme (and *ödmeg) | cf. CT *etmek ‘bread’, which also has variant forms *ekmek and *epmek which were borrowed by Moghol | |
| ‘day’ | *ödür | see *üdür | |
| ‘upwards, upstream; above’ | *öede | ||
| ‘self’ | *öer- | ||
| ‘other, different’ | *öere | possibly related to CT *özge ‘other’ | |
| ‘other’ | *öermiče | ||
| ‘to give’ | *ög- | ||
| ‘daughter, girl’ | *ökin (~ *okïn) | ||
| ‘female of carnivorous animals; she-dog’ | *ölegčin | ||
| ‘cradle’ | *ölegei | ||
| ‘to be hungry’ | *öles- | ||
| ‘to hang’ | *örgü- | see elgü- | |
| ‘instep’ | *ölmei | ||
| ‘trousers’ | *ömüdün | see *emüdün | |
| ‘egg’ | *ömdegen (?< *emdegen or *emdügen) | ||
| ‘egg’ | *öndege | see *ömdegen | |
| ‘high’ | *öndür (?*höndür) | cf. *üdür ‘day’ | |
| ‘orphan(ed)’ | *önečin | ||
| ‘colour; appearance’ | *öŋge | related to CT *öŋ ‘colour’ | |
| ‘to pass by’ | *öŋgere- | ||
| ‘dawn’ | *ör | often used with *čaï- ‘to become white’ or *gei- ‘to become bright’ | |
| ‘(pit of the) stomach’ | *öre | ||
| ‘diaphragm’ | *öreče | probably derived from *öre | |
| ‘type of hobble’ | *öreele | and *öreesün ‘half (one of a pair)’ | |
| ‘skylight’ | *örege | see *erüke | |
| ‘skin on boiled milk’ | *öreme | ||
| ‘broad, wide, vast’ | *örgen | ||
| ‘thorn’ | *örgeesün, *örgesün | ||
| ‘to lift’ | *örgü- | see ergü- | |
| ‘debt’ | *öri | ||
| ‘kind of coarse fabric’ | *örmege | related to CT *hö(:)r-mek from the verb *hö(:)r- ‘to plait’ | |
| ‘skylight, smoke-hole (of a yurt)’ | *örüke | ||
| ‘to grow’ | *ös- | ||
| ‘to kick’ | *öskel- (?*hisköl-) | ||
| ‘heel’ | *ösegei | cf. *ǰauǰaï | |
| ‘dung’ | *öteg | possibly related to Turkic *ötük | |
| ‘old, old man’ | *ötege (and *ötegü) | also used as an Ersatzwort for ‘bear’, usually in the form *ötege | |
| ‘to get old, to age’ | *ötel- | cf. *ötege/*ötegü | |
| ‘feed, fodder’ | *öyee | ||
| ‘to milk’ | *saa- | ||
| ‘name of several colours of horses’ coats (usu. shades of grey)’ | *saaral | ||
| ‘buttocks, hindquarters; names for types of leather’ | *saarï | related to CT *sagïr or *sagrï | |
| ‘magpie’ | *saaǰagaï | see *saǰagaï | |
| ‘vessel, household container; utensil’ | *saba | ||
| ‘to beat’ | *saba- | ||
| ‘to sprinkle, scatter, shed’ | *saču- | related to CT *sač- ‘id’ | |
| ‘to be sprinkled, scattered, shed’ | *sačura- | cf. also CT *sačra- | |
| ‘buckwheat’ | *sagad ~ *sagadaï ~ *sagag | ||
| ‘beautiful, good-looking’ | *saïkan | ||
| ‘good’ | *saïn | ||
| ‘ox; billy-goat’ | *saïnug | see *seinüg | |
| ‘beard’ | *sakal | related to CT *sakal ‘id’ | |
| ‘to wait; to protect; to guard, keep watch’ | *sakï- | perhaps related to CT *sa:k- ‘to think’ | cf. *mana- |
| ‘raft’ | *sal | related to CT *sa:l ‘id’ | |
| ‘to loosen; to be divided; to part’ | *sal- | ||
| ‘branch; space between fingers’ | *salaa | ||
| ‘wind’ | *salkïn | ||
| ‘comb’ | *sam | ||
| ‘to comb’ | *samla- | ||
| ‘to throw up in the air and scatter; to ladle; to stir’ | *samur- | reminiscent of CT *savru- ‘to winnow’ | |
| ‘to think’ | *sana- | cf. *bodo- | |
| ‘hair on the temples’ | *sančïg | ||
| ‘bird of prey’ [several species]. | *sar | Rather poorly attested | |
| ‘moon; month’ | *sara | ||
| ‘garlic’ | *sarïmsag | related to CT *sarïmsak ‘id’ | |
| ‘membrane, thin skin’ | *sarïsun | ||
| ‘Muslim’ | *sarta- | foreign word related to Turkic *sart | |
| ‘to sit (down); to settle down, to live’ | *sau- | ||
| ‘bucket, pail’ | *saulga | cf. Turkic *sagu ‘bucket’ (from *sag- ‘to milk’) | possibly related to *saa- ‘to milk’ |
| ‘magpie’ | *saǰagaï | probably related to CT *sagïzgan ‘id’ | |
| ‘intelligent, bright’ | *sečen | ||
| ‘to poke, prod, prick, pierce’ | *seči- | ||
| ‘to think’ | *sedki- | ||
| ‘heart (fig), mind, thought’ | *sedkil | ||
| ‘backbone, spinal column’ | *seer | perhaps related to CT *seŋir | |
| ‘to pull out, to weed’ | *sei- | ||
| ‘to carve, engrave’ | *seil- | ||
| ‘(kind of) ovid or bovid’ | *seinüg ~ *saïnug | cf. *serke and *teke | |
| ‘sword’ | *seleme | ||
| ‘iron’ | *sələ | perhaps an early loanword from Tungusic in view of Tungusic *sələ ‘iron’ | |
| *sem-ken ‘silent’, (instrumental); *sem-eer ‘silently, secretly, stealthily’ | *sem, (diminutive) | ||
| ‘fat (around the intestines)’ | *semeǰin | possibly related to CT *semiz ‘fat (adjective)’ | |
| ‘to wake up, be awake’ | *seri- | cf. CT *sez- ‘to notice, be aware of’ | (? and *sere- ‘to notice, feel’) |
| ‘cool’ | *seriün | ||
| ‘castrated billy-goat’ | *serke | ||
| ‘to break, tear, crack open (intr)’ | *setel- | ||
| ‘to break, tear, crack open (intr)’ | *setere- | ||
| ‘shadow’ | *seüder | ||
| ‘hip, hipbone’ | *seüǰi | ||
| ‘tail; end’ | *seül | ||
| ‘sigh’ | *seüresün | ||
| ‘ankle’ | *sïa | see *sïgaï | |
| ‘to plaster; to smear on’ | *sïba- | ||
| ‘mud, loam’ | *sïbar | ||
| ‘bird’ | *sïbaun | cf. *bïldïur | |
| ‘to be squeezed out, to flow out, to lose fluid, to be emptied’ | *sïbkara- | apparently originally an intransitive form of *sïbka- ‘to remove the fluid from sth’ | |
| ‘whip’ | *sïčua | cf. also Manchu šusiha | cf. *mïnaa |
| ‘anklebone; bone used in games’ | *sïgaï ~ *sïa | ||
| ‘to peep at, spy on; to gaze at, to stare’ | *sïgaï- (~ *sïgaa-) | ||
| ‘leg’ | *sïïra | ||
| ‘to squeeze, press, pinch’ | *sïka- | related to CT *sïk- ‘id’ | |
| ‘straight (literally); upright, honest’ | *sïluun | ||
| ‘sheep tick’ | *sïlǰa | ||
| ‘to tuck up, roll up’ | *sïmalï- (?*sïmal-) | ||
| ‘to become blunt, calm, weak’ | *sïmtara- | ||
| ‘mosquito’ | *sïmuul | reminiscent of CM *simi- ‘to suck’ | |
| ‘wedge; temple of the head; promontory’ | *sïnaa | ||
| ‘spoon, ladle, scoop’ | *sïnaga | ||
| ‘tendon’ | *sïndasun | ||
| ‘yellow’ | *sïra | ||
| ‘to roast’ | *sïra- | ||
| ‘earth, ground, soil, dust’ | *sïrau/*sïrua/*sïroï | ||
| ‘certain horse colour, isabella, etc’ | *sïrga | cf. *sïra ‘yellow’ | |
| ‘ant’ | *sïrgolǰïn | ||
| ‘to penetrate; to get through; to insert’ | *sïrgu- | ||
| ‘to stitch (usually the sole of a shoe)’ | *sïrï- | ||
| ‘wound’ | *sïrka | ||
| ‘pointed stick; spit’ | *sïro | ||
| ‘to catch fire, to burn (intr.)’ | *sïta- | *sïtaa- ‘to light (a fire), to burn, set fire to’ | |
| ‘storm’ | *sïurgan | ||
| ‘sweat on the palms or feet’ | *siber (?*siberi) | ||
| ‘awl’ | *sibüge (?*sibege) | ||
| ‘to sew, stitch, baste’ | *side- | ||
| ‘tooth’ | *sidün | perhaps a collective form from a PM root *si- | |
| ‘to urinate’ | *sie- | see *siesün ‘urine’ | |
| ‘urine’ | *siesün | ||
| ‘shank, shin’ | *silbi | ||
| ‘lynx’ | *sileü(l)sün | ||
| ‘to shake, tremble’ | *silgüd- | ||
| ‘nape of the neck’ | *sili | ||
| ‘meat broth; soup’ | *silön (?) | ||
| ‘saliva; slobbering’ | *silükei | ||
| ‘to salivate’ | *silüsün, and possibly to *silön. Cf. also MMo SH šilemelce- H140 | ||
| ‘saliva’ | *silüsün | ||
| ‘juice’ | *sime(n) | perhaps related to CM *simi- ‘to suck’ | |
| ‘to suck’ | *simi- | ||
| ‘to melt’ | *simtere- | see *sïmtara- | |
| ‘new’ | *sini (?~ *sine) | ||
| ‘to be digested’, and ‘(of the sun) to set’ | *siŋge- | cf. CT *siŋ- | |
| ‘thin, watery’ | *siŋgen | probably from *siŋge- | |
| ‘tendon, muscle’ | *sirbüsün (?*sirbösün) | ||
| ‘table’ | *siree | ||
| ‘coarse’ | *sirüün | ||
| ‘felt’ | *sisegei | see *isegei | |
| ‘to strain, filter; to skim off; to scoop out of a fluid’ | *siü- | ||
| ‘chisel’ | *siüči | perhaps in some way related to CM *sibege ‘awl’? | |
| ‘dew’ | *siüderi(n) | ||
| ‘broom; fine-toothed comb’ | *siür | ||
| ‘to sweep’ | *siür- | ||
| ‘juice; portion of meat allocated to a certain person’ | *siüsün | ||
| ‘to be startled’ | *sočï- | ||
| ‘doe, hind’ | *sogaa | reminiscent of CT *sïgun ‘deer’ | |
| ‘to be drunk’ | *sogta- | ||
| ‘blind (person)’ | *sokar | ||
| ‘left, left hand side’ | *solagaï | related to CT *so:l ‘left’, *so:l-ak ‘left-handed (person)’ | cf. *ǰeün ‘left’ |
| ‘rainbow’ | *solaŋga | ||
| ‘gadfly, horsefly’ | *sona | ||
| ‘to hear’ | *sonas- | cf. *čïŋla- ‘to listen’ | |
| ‘news; new, newsworthy, interesting’ | *sonïn | ||
| ‘to mock; to imitate’ | *sonǰï- | ||
| ‘onion’ | *soŋgïna | The CM word was probably borrowed from a CT diminutive *sogan-kïña from *sogan ‘onion’ | |
| ‘to choose, select, elect’ | *soŋgu- (~ *suŋgu-) | cf. CM *ïlga- | |
| ‘cane, walking-stick’ | *sorbï | ||
| ‘to suck’ | *sora- | related to CT *so:r- ‘id’ | cf. *simi-, *köke- |
| ‘edible flowers of wild leek’ and other bulbous plants. | *sorïsun | ||
| ‘eyelash’ | *sormusun | cf. *hanï-ska | |
| ‘stalk, shoot; fang, tusk’ | *soyaa | ||
| ‘small handspan, the space between thumb and index finger’ | *söem | ||
| ‘to scold, curse, blame’ | *sögee- | probably related to CT *sö:k- ‘to scold’ | cf. *karïa- |
| ‘to kneel’ | *söged- | reminiscent of Old Turkic sök- ‘id’ | |
| ‘knee’ | *ebüdüg | ||
| ‘earring’ | *söike | ||
| ‘gall bladder; bile’ | *sölsün (~ *čölsün) | ||
| ‘to go out (fire)’ | *söne- | related to CT *sö:n- ‘id’ | |
| ‘night’ | *söni | ||
| ‘gall bladder’ | *sösün | see *sölsün | |
| ‘ditch, canal’ | *subag | probably related to CT *suba- ‘to water’, from *sub ‘water’ | |
| ‘barren (of livestock)’ | *subaï | cf. *kïsuraŋ | |
| ‘pearl’ | *subud | see *subusun | |
| ‘stupa, pagoda’ | *suburgan | from Sogdian, via Turkic | |
| ‘pearl’ | *subusun | perhaps from a PM root *subu- | |
| ‘to unravel, undo, take apart, to make gaps’ | *sučal- | ||
| ‘vein, etc’ | *sudal | see *sudasun | |
| ‘blood vessel, vein, artery’ | *sudasun | ||
| ‘to pull out a long thin object, to unsheath’ | *sugul- | perhaps with a variant *ǰugul- | |
| ‘loose, lax; empty’ | *sula | ||
| ‘bag’ | *sumal | ||
| ‘arrow, bullet’ | *sumun | ||
| ‘to ride on a horse with a passenger or luggage in front or behind’ | *sundula- | cf. *deür- | |
| ‘to stretch, extend (intr)’ | *sun(u)- | CT *su:n- ‘to stretch, extend’ | *sunïa- ‘to stretch oneself’, *suŋga- ‘to stretch, extend (tr)’ |
| ‘strip of leather, leather strap’ | *sur | ||
| ‘to learn’ | *sur- | ||
| ‘to ask’ | *sura- | may be related to CT *sɔr- | |
| ‘armpit’ | *suu (~ *sugu) | ||
| ‘milk’ | *sü(n) ~ *üsün | ||
| ‘small hole, eye of a needle’ | *sübe | ||
| ‘flank, side of the chest’ | *sübee | ||
| ‘faith, belief’ | *süǰig | from CT *süzüg ‘pure’, from the verb *süz- ‘to filter’ | |
| ‘axe’ | *süke | ||
| ‘temple; Buddha effigy’ | *süme | ||
| ‘soul’ | *sünesün | ||
| ‘grandeur, majesty, might, power’ | *sür | ||
| ‘you (plural and/or polite)’ | *ta | ||
| ‘to guess; to suppose’ | *taa- | probably related to CT *tap- ‘to find’ | |
| ‘to like, to love; to caress’ | *taala- | related to CT *tapla- ‘to be pleased’ | |
| ‘to put’ | *tabï- | see talbï- | |
| ‘fifty’ | *tabïn | ||
| ‘five’ | *tabun | cf. *modun ‘wood’ for a similar case | |
| ‘to make an offering, to sacrifice’ | *taï- | related to CT *tap- ‘to worship’, which indicates a PM form *tahï- < *tapï- | cf. the unrelated but semantically overlapping *takï- |
| ‘to undo, untie, unwrap’ | *taïl- | ||
| ‘to put’ | *talbï- | The Monguor languages continue to distinguish the two | |
| ‘horseshoe’ | *taka | ||
| ‘to serve; to worship, to make an offering’ | *takï- | cf. *taï- | |
| ‘chicken’ | *takïa | ||
| ‘to put, lay down; to release, let go of’ | *talbï- | ||
| ‘flour; roasted flour; bread’ | *talkan | related to CT *talkan | |
| ‘to smash, to rip, to tear to pieces’ | *tamtul- | *tamtura- ‘to be smashed, torn, ripped’ | |
| ‘to rub; ‘to twist or spin thread or rope’ | *tamu- and *tomu- (*toma-) | ||
| ‘large pearl’ | *tana | cf. *subud ‘pearl’ | |
| ‘to know, to recognize’ | *tanï- | ||
| ‘palate’ | *taŋlaï | the PM root may have been *taŋ- | |
| ‘sour milk, clabbered milk, yoghurt, cottage cheese, etc’ | *tarag | ||
| ‘mange; bald’ | *taragaï or *tarakaï | apparently related to CT *taz ‘bald’ | |
| ‘marmot’ | *tarbagan | the PM ‘root’ may have been *tarba- | |
| ‘fat (adj)’ | *targun | ||
| ‘to sow, plant’ | *tarï- | related to CT *tarï- ‘id’ | |
| ‘crop; grain, cereal; agricultural field’ | *tarïan | related to CT *tarïg ‘wheat’ | |
| ‘brain’ | *tarïkï | cf. *heki(n) | |
| ‘to scatter, spread, disperse’ | *tarka- | ||
| ‘strip of leather, thong’ | *tasma | ||
| ‘to break (intr)’ | *tasura- | ||
| ‘to pull’ | *tata- | in many languages also ‘to grind, mill’, or ‘to smoke’ | |
| ‘to drive (usu. animals)’ | *tau- | ||
| ‘hare’ | *taulaɪ | ||
| ‘jackdaw’ | *taun and/or ?*tagan/*tagun | related to the synonymous CT *taŋan | |
| ‘stick, walking cane’ | *tayag | derived from the CT verb *taya- ‘to support’ | cf. *sorbï |
| ‘shuttlecock’ | *tebeg (?*tebüg) | apparently borrowed from CT *tepük, derived from *tep- ‘to kick’ | |
| ‘large needle’ | *tebene (?*temene) | related to CT *temen ‘id’ | |
| ‘to embrace’ | *teberi- | ||
| ‘plate, dish’ | *tebsi | from Chinese diézi, perhaps via Turkic *tevsi | |
| ‘those’ | *tede | see *tere | |
| ‘axle’ | *teeli | see *teŋgeli(g) | |
| ‘mill’ | *teermen | related to CT *tegirmen ‘id’ | in the QG languages *termen |
| ‘level, even’ | *tegsi | cf. *tübsin | |
| ‘to end (intr)’ | *tegüs- | ||
| ‘such, that kind of’ | *teimü | ||
| ‘like that, so’ | *tein | cf. *teimü above | |
| ‘to do that way’ | *teingi- < *tein ki- | from the pronominal root *te-, cf. also *tere ‘that’, *tende ‘there’ | |
| ‘to feed, nourish’ | *teǰie- | ||
| ‘billy-goat’ | *teke | related to CT *teke ‘id’ | cf. *ukuna and *serke |
| ‘to struggle, to strive for, to exert oneself, to compete’ | *temeče- | ||
| ‘camel’ | *temeen | related to CT *teve ‘id’ | |
| ‘to gather, pick up’ | *temgü- | ||
| ‘to feel, grope’ | *temtel-, *temtere- | ||
| ‘iron’ | *temür | related to CT *temir ‘id’ | |
| ‘there’ | *tende | The same stem as *tein ‘like that’, *tere ‘that’, etc | |
| ‘axle’ | *teŋgeli(g) | ||
| ‘sky, weather; heaven; god’ | *teŋgeri | related to CT *teŋri ‘id’ | in Shirongol ‘sky’ |
| ‘that; s/he, it’ | *tere (and *te?) | ||
| ‘cart’ | *tergen | ||
| ‘head’ | *teriün | with many derived meanings such as ‘chief’ and ‘beginning’ | |
| ‘to gather, pick up’ (e.g. dried dung or firewood) | *teü- | cf. *temgü- ‘id’ | |
| ‘number, figure’ | *toa(n) | ||
| ‘to count’ | *toala- | from *toa(n) ‘number’ above | |
| ‘earth; dust, dust cloud, speck of dust’ | *toarag and *tobarag | from Turkic word *toprak ‘earth’ | cf. *toasun ‘dust’ |
| ‘to turn around; to circle; to enclose’ | *toarï- | ||
| ‘dust’ | *toasun | perhaps related to Turkic *tog ‘id’ or *topa ‘id’ | |
| ‘button’ | *tobčï | ||
| ‘pot, pan, cauldron’ | *togaan | cf. *kaïsun | |
| ‘crane (the bird)’ | *togaraun (?*toguraun) | ||
| ‘to be steady; to stand still, to stop; to take shape’ | *togta- | ||
| ‘elbow’ | *tokaï | ||
| ‘to saddle, to cover with sth’ | *toku- (?*toka-) | ||
| ‘saddle-pad, sweat-cloth’ | *tokum (?*tokam) | in some QG languages ‘felt’. derived from *toku- | |
| ‘head’ | *tolagaï | see *hekin, *teriün ‘head’ | |
| ‘to spin thread, etc’ | *toma- | see *tamu- | |
| ‘net’ | *tor | related to CT *tor (?*to:r) ‘id’ | |
| ‘silk’ | *torga(n) | CT *torku ‘id’ | |
| ‘fat, oil, butter’ | *tosun | the PM root may have been *to- | |
| ‘Tibetan’ | *töbed | ||
| ‘handspan’ | *töe | ||
| ‘cauterisation, moxibustion’ | *töene | related to CT *tögün, originally ‘brand’, and *tögne- ‘to brand’ | related verb *töene- |
| ‘to get lost’ | *töeri- | cf. *ǰabka- | |
| ‘circle or sphere; round, circular, spherical’ | *tögerig | ||
| ‘to be born or to give birth’ | *töre- | cf. CT *törü- | |
| ‘calf’ | *tugul | probably related to CT *toklï ‘id’ | |
| ‘to buck; to kick with the hind legs’ | *tuïla- | ||
| ‘to support’ | *tul- | ||
| ‘support, pillar, column’ | *tulga | ||
| ‘animal skin used as a container, leather bag’ | *tulum | cf. CT *tulum | |
| ‘to be or become emaciated’ | *tur- | ||
| ‘turnip’ | *turma | probably borrowed separate from CT *turma (of IE origin) by MMo and QG languages | |
| ‘hoof’ | *turuun | ||
| ‘assistance; benefit, profit’ | *tusa | cf. CT *tusa ‘id’ | |
| ‘straight, upright, vertical; opposite’ | *tuš (> *tus) | from CT *tuš ‘equal; opposite’ | |
| ‘rice’ | *tuturgan | related to CT *tuturkan ‘id’ | |
| ‘to land, swoop down’ | *tuu- | ||
| ‘tin; lead’ | *tuulga | ||
| ‘hoof’ | *tuura(ï) | see sv turuʊn | |
| ‘flat, level, smooth; peaceful, quiet’ | *tübsin | ||
| ‘(unwanted) fire, steppe fire’ | *tüimer | ||
| ‘to light, set fire to, burn’ | *tüle- (*tüli-) | ||
| ‘firewood’ | *tülien | derived from *tüle- (*tüli-) | |
| ‘to push’ | *tülki- | ||
| ‘key’ | *tülkiür | derived from *tülki- ‘to push’ | |
| ‘to drag; to push’ (not listed). | *türi- | ||
| ‘ten thousand; multitude’ | *tümen | Widely occurring Eurasian word related to CT *tümen ‘id’ | |
| ‘bootleg’ | *türei | ||
| ‘fast, quick’ | *türgen | ||
| ‘at first’ | *türüün | see s.v. *teriün | |
| ‘to sprinkle, to pour, to cast (metal)’ | *tüsür- | cf. *čïdku-, *ki- | |
| ‘raw’ | *tüükei ~ *tüükü | ||
| ‘feeding horn’ | *ubuǰï | see *ugǰï | |
| ‘reason; circumstance; occasion’ | *učïr | ||
| ‘to meet’ | *učïra- | the PM form may be *utïra- | |
| ‘to be late’ | *uda- | ||
| ‘to scoop up’ | *udku- | ||
| ‘to lead, guide’ | *udurïd- and *udurï- | apparently related to CT *uduz-, a caus. formation of *ud- ‘to follow’ | |
| ‘to wash’ | *ugïa- (> *ugaa-) | ||
| ‘feeding horn, feeding bottle’ | *ugǰï, *ubuǰï | ||
| ‘ibex, mountain goat’ | *ugulǰa | also used for ornaments in the shape of stylized spiralling horns | |
| ‘to throw’ | *ugur- (?) | ||
| ‘to cry’ | *uïla- | ||
| ‘billy-goat’ | *ukana | ||
| ‘sole of the foot (or shoe)’ | *ula | related to CT *ul (?*hul) | |
| ‘people; state, country’ | *ulus | related to CT *uluš ‘id’ | |
| ‘to forget’ | *umarta- | see *marta- | |
| ‘drink, beverage’ | *umdaan | cf. *umdaas- ‘to be thirsty’ | |
| ‘to be thirsty’ | *umdaas- | derived from *umdaan | |
| ‘yak hybrid’ | *umsu (?*ümsü) | cf. *kaïnag ‘yak’ | |
| ‘to fall, to come down’ | *una- | cf. *bau- ‘to descend’ | |
| ‘foal, colt’ | *unagan | ||
| ‘to sleep’ | *unta- | ||
| ‘to lie down; to sleep’ | *untara- | ||
| ‘wool’ | *uŋgasun | see *nogasun | |
| ‘to read’ | *uŋsï- ~ *umsï- | ||
| ‘master, craftsman; skill; skillful’ | *uran | related to CT *u:z ‘id’ | |
| ‘to come up, appear (usu. of celestial bodies); to grow, sprout’ | *urgu- | ||
| ‘to call; to invite’ | *urï- | ||
| ‘before, earlier’ | *urïda | *urïdu ‘former, previous; front; south’. cf. *urïǰï | |
| ‘the day before yesterday’ | *urïǰï üdür | ||
| ‘the year before last’ | *urïǰï hɔn | ||
| ‘three days ago’ | *urïǰïïn urïǰï üdür | ||
| ‘long’ | *urtu (~ *utu ~ *utur) | ||
| ‘relatives by marriage’ | *urug | CT *urug, *urug tarïg | |
| ‘forward’ | *urugsï | ||
| ‘to race (horses)’ | *uruldu- | ||
| ‘to flow’ | *urus- | ||
| ‘water’ | *usun | perhaps derived from a root *u- | |
| ‘to drink’ | *uu- | cf. *ugǰï ‘feeding bottle’ and *oačï- ‘to drink’ | |
| ‘back; sacrum; crotch, hindquarters, rump’ | *uuča | corresponds to CT *u:ča | |
| ‘to throw’ | *uur- (?) | see *ugur- | |
| ‘biestings, colostrum’ | *uurag | related to CT *aguz ‘id’ | |
| ‘urga, pole with a noose at the end used for catching horses’ | *uurga (?urga) | Not to be confused with *huraka ‘lasso, snare’ | |
| ‘winter’ | *übül (?*ebül) | ||
| ‘little, small’ | *üčüken (?*öčüken) | cf. also *baga ‘small’ | |
| ‘noon, midday’ | *üde | ||
| ‘(in the) evening, (at) night’ | *üdesi | ||
| ‘(in the) evening, (at) night’ | *üdesileŋ | cf. also *ene üdesileŋ ‘tonight’ | |
| ‘day’ | *üdür/*ödür | ||
| ‘word; speech’ | *üge | ||
| ‘there is not; without; not’ | *ügei (?*ügüi) | in some languages also ‘poor’ | |
| ‘to pull out, tear out’ | *ügtee- | cf. *sei- | |
| ‘work, deed, affair’ | *üile | ||
| ‘birchbark’ | *üisün (?*uïsun, ?*uïlsun) | ||
| ‘to see’ | *üǰe- | ||
| ‘letter, character; writing’ | *üǰüg ~ *üsüg | elated to CT *üžük, itself a loanword from an unknown source | |
| ‘tip, end’ | *üǰüür | see *hüǰüür | |
| ‘to die’ | *ükü- | ||
| ‘sword’ | *üldü | see *ildü | |
| ‘story, tale; example; proverb’ | *üliger | ||
| ‘not’ | *üle, *ülü | cf. the other negative particles *bisi, *bütegei, *ese, *ügüi | |
| ‘root’ | *ündesün | cf. *hïǰaur ~ *huǰaur ‘id’ | |
| ‘price’ | *üne | ||
| ‘true’ | *ünen | ||
| ‘cow’ | *ünien | compare CT *in(g)ek ‘cow’ | |
| ‘kid (goat)’ | *ünügün | ||
| ‘young stallion (of three, four, or five years)’ | *ürie | ||
| ‘milk’ | *üsün | see *süü | |
| ‘threshing floor’ | *ütergen ~ *ütürme | perhaps a corruption of Turkic *örtgün ‘id’? | |
| ‘joint; generation’ | *üye | ||
| ‘feed, fodder’ | *üyee | ||
| ‘what; what kind of’ | *yaan and *yaun | cf. *yama, *yamar | |
| ‘to do what/how’ (interrogative verb). | *yaakï- | apparently from *yaan + *ki-. see *yaan and *yaun | |
| ‘to be in a hurry’ | *yaara- | ||
| ‘to go; to walk’ | *yabu- | ||
| ‘to be unable’ | *yada- | ||
| ‘to be(come) tired’ | *yadara- | apparently an inchoative formation to *yada- | |
| ‘what; something; thing’ | *yama | ||
| ‘what, what kind of’ | *yamar | ||
| ‘ulcer, sore; syphilis’ | *yara | in MMo and Dag ‘wound’ | |
| ‘bone(s)’ | *yasun | from a PM root *ya- | |
| ‘something, thing’ | *yauma | cf. *yama ‘id’ | |
| ‘what’ | *yaun | see s.v. *yaan | |
| ‘large, big, great’ | *yeke (?) | ||
| ‘ninety’ | *yeren | ||
| ‘nine’ | *yesün < *yersün | ||
| ‘to scoop or ladle out and transfer into another container; transfuse, transplant, etc’ | *yeü- (?*yüü-) | ||
| ‘to move, shift (tr.)’ | *yeüdke- | ||
| ‘custom, habit, rule’ | *yosun |
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ Nugteren, Hans. 2011. Mongolic Phonology and the Qinghai-Gansu Languages. Utrecht: LOT. ISBN: 978-94-6093-070-6
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