Appendix:Proto-Northwest Caucasian reconstructions

Proto-Northwest Caucasian reconstructions by Colarusso (1989) and Chirikba (1996):

Colarusso (1989)

No.	English gloss	Proto-Northwest Caucasian
18	sky, upward/downward	*zo, *zo-ʏo, *zo-ɣo-n-
19	you (plural)	*so
20	pig	*ḥuqa
21	skin	*co
22	to slide, crawl	*-ćʰu-xo-
23	ox	*ću
24	house-(debate, decree)	*ǧuna-(śo-)
25	two	*tʼqʼo
26	difficulty	*qyən
27	innocence	*χə-yà
28	general locative on NPs	*w-gə, *w-ga, *-ga
29	bread	*y-čʰa, *y-čʰàqʼo, *w-čʰə̀-qʼo, *čʰə̀-qʼo
30	hundred	*śa, *w-śa
31	old	*źə, *w-źə
32	lovely	*nə̀-χa, *nə̀-w-χa
33	shoulder	*p-ʎə-ʔà, *p-ʎə-ʔə̀, *w-ʎə-ʔà
34	ten	*pʼ-źə̀, *w-źə̀, *w-źà
35	year	*ƛà-s, *w-ƛà, *ƛə̀-ku-ś, *ku-śə-ƛə̀
36	shelter, locus of an action	*-y-śa, *-w-śa
37	shelter	*-y-xa
38	word	*y-śə̀-ʢa, *mə-ha-śà, *ha-w-śə-ʢá
39	bear	*mə-śà, *mə-w-śà, *mə-w-śə̀
40	three	*y-χə, *y-χa, *χə
41	nine	*bə-w-ʏə̀, *bə-y-ʏə̀, *wə-y-ʏə̀
42	horse	*čʰə, *y-čʰə, *y-čʰa, *čʰə-də, *čʰa-da
43	butter	*tʼ-χu, *(tʼ-)χu
44	churn	*tʼ-χu-w-à-ƛa, *tʼ-χu-y-à-ƛa, *tʼ-χu-à-ƛa
45	a mass (a pre-verbal particle, henceforth 'pV')	*-hə-, *-w-hə-a
46	chest, breast	*bəqʼà, *(y-)bəqʼà
47	good	*čʼə, *-w-čʼa-, *w-čʼə
48	waist	*mə-ǧè, *mə-y-ǧa, *pʼə-ǧə
49	eight	*y-ɣə, *w-ɣa, *ɣa
50	benefactive pV, for	*-w-χa-, *-y-χa-
51	genetive of alienable possession	*-y-ʏə-, *-ʏa-
52	testicle (zero-grammatical class marker in all branches)	*ǧa
53	road	*w-ʏà, *mə-y-ʏà, *mə-w-ʏə̀
54	pear	*w-qʰə̀, *y-qʰà, *qʰà
55	grave	*qʰa, *w-qʰə
56	new	*y-ćʼa, *ćʼa
57	liver	*w-cəʔà, *w-cə̀ʔa, *w-càʔə, *y-cəʔà
58	blue, gray	*šə-w-ʕa, *ʕa-, *w-ʕa
59	wood, stick (zero-grammatical class marker in all branches)	*(ʕan-)cʰa, *cʰa, *cʰə
60	arm	*ʔa
61	five	*w-ćχə, *y-ćχə, *w-ćχə
62	heart	*w-gə, *y-gə
63	man	*w-ǧə, *w-ǧa
64	slave (borrowing from Iranian)	*wir-ya-ka-
65	land, region	*χa, *w-χa
66	sea	*hə, *w-ha
67	to write	*-tʰə-χə-, *-w-χə-, *-w-ʔa-χə-
68	white	*w-šə, *šə
69	day	*mə-w-šà, *mə-šə̀
70	to say	*-ǯə-qʼa-, *-w-qʼa-, *-cu-qʼa-, *-cu-w-qʼa-
71	to graze (as of cattle)	*-w-ḥəxə-, *ḥəxə-
72	to tend flocks	*-ʔà-w-xa-, *-ʔa-w-xà-
73	herd	*-x(a)-
74	to die, mortal	*-ƛə-ʔà-, *ƛə-ʔə̀, *-ƛə-ʔə̀-, *-w-ƛə-ʔə̀-
75	to cover	*-pʼʔa-w-qʼà-, *-pʼʔa-y-qʼə̀-, *-ḥa-w-qʼà-
76	to tie	*-pʰə-ğə-, *-pʰə-y-ğə-a-
77	to call to someone	*-pʰe-y-χà-, *-mə-y-χà-
78	to enter	*-ḥa-, *-w-ḥə-
79	to go, come	*-y-ća-, *-ća-
80	to hunt	*-ša-, *-w-šə-, *-w-ša-
81	trace	*ƛaqʼà
	right	*żqʼà, *żʏà
	the-girl-little-past = she was a little girl	*a-sʷemcʼa-śʷ-qʼa
82	water, river	*ʒə, *-ʒə-y-a-w-ʏa-, *pə-ʒə, *pə-ʒa
83	bone, frame	*pəʕə̀, *pəʕà, *w-pəʕà, *w-pəʕə̀
84	to run	*-ʔəqà-, *-w-ʔəqə̀
85	foster child	*-pa-w-ʕə̀-, *pa-w-ʕà, *-pa-y-ʕə̀-, *pa-ʕə̀, *pa-ʕà
86	to curve, bend	*-w-ḥa-, *-w-ḥə-, *-ḥə-qʼa-, *-w-ḥə-qʼa-, *-w-ḥə-qʼa-
87	to drink	*-w-ḥəʒə-a-, *-w-ḥəʒə-
88	brother	*hǯə, *y-hǯə, *y-hǯa
89	head	*ḥa-šə̀, *ḥa-šà, *ḥa-šə̀-ʏo, *ḥə̀, *ḥà
90	mountain (forest)	*ƛaḥà
91	to rain	*-ćʰ-yə-kə̀-, *-w-kə̀-, *-w-kə̀-a-
92	to eat	*-χčə-, *-w-χčə-, *-w-χčə-a-, *y-xčə-a
93	six	*χcə, *w-χcə
94	copper	*ha-yəχa
95	metal, iron	*w-ʏa, *w-ʏ-čʼa, *w-ʏə-čʼa
96	to ask, answer	*-pʰə-ćʼə-, *-ćʼə-ʏa-
97	to know	*-ćʼa-ʏà-, *-ćʼa-
98	woman	*xa-, *pa, *pə-xə̀, *pə-w-xə̀, *pə-y-xà, *w-sə̀mcʼa, *w-xə-śə̀mcʼa, *pə-w-xə̀-śəmcʼa, *pə-śə̀mcʼa, *pə-xə-śəmcʼa
99	famine	*mla
100	wolf	*w-l(p)a-
101	village
102	to look	*-pʰə-ƛə-, *-ƛə-a-, *-pʰəƛə-a-
103	to give birth	*-ʎə-w-χə-, *-ʎə-χə-, *-ʎə-χə-a-, *-y-χə-a-
104	feces	*ćəχə̀, *-la-ćəχə̀-, *-wə-ćəχə-a-
105	to blaspheme	*-wə-cə-cəχà-, *-wə-cə̀χa-, *-la-wə-cəχà-, *-la-wə-cə̀χa-, *-la-cəχà-
105	insect	*ʒ́ə, *ʒ́a-a-ʒ́, *pə-ʒ́à
106	span, measure	*ʒ́a, *pə-ʒ́à
107	winter	*ʒ́ə, *pə-ʒ́ə̀, *pə-ʒ́à
108	vine	*ʒ́a, *pə-ʒ́à, *pə-ʒ́è
109	sharp(en)	*ćʼa, *pʼə-ćʼà
110	bird	*ćʼə̀, *pʼə-ćʼà
111	to splash	*-ćʼà-, *pʼə-ćʼə̀-
112	lie, falsehood	*mə̀ć(à), *pʼə-məć(à)
113	to ferment	*-ća-, *pʼə-ćà-
114	flesh	*ća, *pʼə-ćà
115	rennet stomach	*ća, *pʼə-ćà

Chirikba (1996)

Basic vocabulary

No.	English	Common West Caucasian	Common Circassian	Ubykh	Common Abkhaz
1.	hand	*q’a	*q’a	q’a-p’a
1.	hand	*ma			*ma
2.	left side		*sama-g°ə	arma (Abx ?)	*arə-ma
3.	right side	*z°ə	*žá/ə	aź-q’a	*a(r)ə-ɣá(-ma)
4.	leg/foot	*λá	*λa	λa-p’a	*šá-p’°ə
5.	walk/go	*k’°a	*k’°a/ə	k’a
5.	walk/go	*ća			*ća
6.	road, path	*məʕ°á	*ɣ°a-g°ə	məɣá	*məɦ°a
7.	come		*q̄a-k’°a	j-k’á	*ɦa; *ɦa-jə
8.	turn (v.)	*za	*za	brā-za	*ħ°a-za ’to crawl’
9.	swim	*s°a/ə	*sə	ʒ́aśa (Abx)	*ʒə-śa
10.	dirty	*ć’°ə	*ś’°a-jə	q’ə́-ć’°-q’a	*ħ°ən-ć’°ə ‘dirt’
11.	dust		*sap̄a	sapa (Circ)	*bəbə; *saba (Kab)
12.	skin	*ć°a	*ś°a	ć°a	*ć°a
13.	back	*pxá	*pxa	pšá	*(p)x̌á
14.	belly	*nək’°a//nəg°a	*nəba	nək’°ə	*mg°a
15.	bone	*bəG°ə	*p̄q̄ə	pqə (Circ)	*ba/əɦ°ə
16.	guts		*k’á-t’ə/ajə	La	*k’át’ə/ajə (Circ)
17.	liver	*ć’°a	*ś’°ə	ć’°a	*(g°-a-)ć’°a
18.	heart	*g°ə	*g°ə	gə́	*g°ə
19.	shoulder		*t̄ama	txə (Circ)	*ź°-°ɦ°a
20.	know	*ć’a	*ś’-q’a	ć’a	*ć’a ‘to learn’; *dərə
21.	think		*g°ə-ps/šə-sa		*q°əćə
22.	be afraid		*čʰə́na	gə́-gá	*š°a
23.	blood	*λá	*λə	λa	*šá
24.	head	*š-qa ?	*śħa	ša	*qa
25.	neck		*pśa	t°əqə	*q°əda
26.	hair	*q(’)°ə	*cʰə	q̱’°ə	*q°ə
27.	nose	*pa	*pʰa	fa	*pə
28.	breathe		*bawa// *žə́ q̄a-čʰá	pśax̌°ə	a-psəp la-ga=j°a-ga-ra
29.	sniff, smell	*fə-	*pʰa-ma//*fa-ma	fə-mə	*fə-ɦ°ə
30.	mouth	*č’a	*ža	č’á	*č’a
31.	tooth	*ca	*c̄a	ca-k’ə́	*cə
32.	tongue	*bza	*bza	bźa	*bzə
33.	laugh (v.)	*čá	*č´-xə	š°a-čá	*čə́-čá
34.	cry (v.)	*ć’°a	*ɣə	ć’°a	*ć’°ə-wa
35.	vomit (v.)	*ǯə	*q̄a-žə	ǯə
36.	spit	*ć°a	*wə-ź°ə-ntxa	ć°a-š´xə	*žə́-ć°a
37.	defecate	*c’ə	*c’ə	ćə	*ccə
38.	eat	*fa/ə	*ć´xə	fə	*fa
39.	chew	*q’aq’a	*na/əšk’°ə	q̱’aq̱’ə	*q’aq’a
40.	cook/boil	*ź°a	*ź°a	ź°a	*ź°ə
41.	drink (v.)	*ʒ́°a/ə	*ś°a/ə	ʒ́°a	*ź°ə
42.	bite	*(ca-)Ga	*c̄a-q̄a	q̱’ə	*c-ħa
43.	suck	*ć°a; *ś°a/ə	*ć°ə-λə; *ś°ə	t°əλə	*ć°(ć°)a; *ś°a
44.	ear	*Ła	*tħa-k’°əma	La-k’°əma	*lə-mħa
45.	hear		*za-xa-xə	q’°ə	*aħa
46.	eye	*b-la	*na	(b)La	*(b)la
47.	see	*pλə/a	*pλə/a	pλa	*pšə
48.	yawn		*x°əśħa	c’á-ɣ̱a	*č’a-ħa-śə
49.	sleep (v.)	*ƛ°a	*c̄̌ə-ja	ć°a	*ć°a
50.	lie down		*ɣ°a-λə	-sə	*š´-t’a-la
51.	sit	*t’°a-sə	*t’ə-sə	t’°a-sə	*t’°a
52.	stand	*gə	*tʰa-gə́		*gə-la
53.	human being		*c’əx°ə	tətə	*waɦ°ə
54.	male	*(a)t°a//*(a)ba	*x̌°ə	t°a	*aba
55.	female	*pəzə	*bzə	abza	*psə
56.	child		*č’á-La	məzə	*x̌°ə-č’ə́
57.	man/husband		*λ’ə	k°abžá	*qać’a
58.	woman/wife	*pH°á/ə-s°ə		px̌á-š°	*pħ°ə-śə
58.	woman/wife	*ś°ə-	*ś°əzə	ś°əmc’a
59.	mother	*(a)na/ə	*nə//(j)ana	na	*anə
60.	father	*(a)t°ə	*t̄ə/a	t°ə	*abə
61.	son	*q°a	*q̄°a	q°a	*pa
62.	daughter	*pH°á/ə	*px̌°ə	px̌á	*pħa
63.	house	*ʕ°əna	*wəna	ć°əja	*ɦ°əna
64.	name	*(p’)c’a	*c’a	p’c’a	*x̌ə́ʒə
65.	say		*q’°a	q’a	*ħ°a
66.	rope	*ša	*k’á-psa	nd°a-ša	*ša
67.	tie up/ fasten		*pxa	bźa	*č’a-ħ°a
68.	sew	*px̌a/ə	*px̌ə	px̌a
68.	sew	*(p)sa	*-sa		*psa
69.	needle		*mast̄a	d°a	*g°ərə
70.	hunt (v.)	*š°a	*ja-s̄̌a	š°a	*š°a
71.	shoot (arrow)		*čʰá-bza ʒə		*x̌ə-śə
72.	stab		*pʰə-gá/ə	-ś°ə	*r-śə
73.	hit, slap		*wa	ja	*śə
74.	steal		*t̄əɣ°ə	wəćə	*ɣ(´)əčə́
75.	kill	*ƛ’ə́	*λ’ə	k’°ə	*šə́
76.	die, be dead		*λ’ə	dəwa	*pśə
77.	live		*psa-wə	psa wa-λ	*bza
78.	scratch (an itch)		*bžə́-bžə́/a		*bəzə-bəzə
79.	cut, hack	*q’ə	*wə-q’a	-q’ə	*-q’ə
80.	stick (wood)	*bəća	*bačʰá		k’ārda
81.	sharp		*pʰa-p’c’a	(n)dan	*ć’arə
82.	dull, blunt		*c̄a-k̄°a	cag°a (Circ)	*cag°ə (Circ)
83.	work		*Lažá	psa-šə́	*wə
84.	plant (v.)		*xa-sa		*la-c’a
85.	choose	*xə	*-xə		*aj-lə-x̌ə
86.	grow	*H°á	*xa-x̌°a	ja-x̌á-x̌ə́	*źə-ħa
87.	swell (abscess)	*čə́	*q̄a-cʰə́-nə	pśa	*čə́
88.	squeeze	*zə	*q̄°ə-za/ə	ɣa-zə
89.	hold (in fists)	*q’a-ɣə	*q’ə-ɣə	q’a-ɣə	*k’ə
90.	dig	*t’°ə	*t’a/ə	t’°ə	*ža
91.	buy	*x̌°a	*s̄̌á-x°a	x̌°a-da	*ɦa-x̌°a
92.	give	*ta/ə	*tʰə/a	t(°)ə/a	*ta/ə
93.	open, uncover	*t’°ə	*-xə	č’á-t’°ə	*t’ə
94.	pound, beat	*śə	*śə-bə	śa-śə	*śə
95.	throw	*ʒ́a/ə	*ʒə	ʒ́a-da	*-ž´
96.	fall	*Há	*-x°a/ə	-x̌á	*ħa
97.	dog	*H°a (?)	*ħa	w̱a	*la
98.	bird		*bzə-wə	ɣ°ənd°ə	*ć’ə-śə
99.	egg		*k’á(n)k’á	dəma-ć’a	*k’°ət’a-ɣə́
100.	feather		*q̄a-bzəjə		*x̌ʒə
101.	wing		*t̄ama	bzāpa	*mc’(°)ə-ź°-ɦ°a
102.	fly (v.)	*pərə	*pʰərə ‘sound of flying’; *bəbə	pərə	*pərə
103.	rat, mouse	*q°ənə//*H°ənə	*ś°aja	q°ənə	*ħ°ən-apə
104.	meat, flesh	*Lə	*Lə	ɣá	*žə́
105.	fat, grease	*ša	*s̄̌a	ś°əq’a	*šəša
106.	tail		*k’á	k’°ačá	*c’ə-q°a
107.	snake		*bLa	ant’a	*matə
108.	worm	*x°a	*x°ə-psə ‘larva, grub’; *ħambəLəwə	xa	*x̌°a
109.	louse	*ć’a	*c’a	ž°a-(n)k’ə́	*ć’a
110.	flea	*ʒ́ə	*bžə-ʒa	ba-(n)ʒ́ə ‘fly’	*ʒ́ə
111.	mosquito	*k’°əm/bərə	*arɣ°ajə	k’°əməj	*k’°əbərə
112.	fish	*pśa	*p̄c̄a	psa	*pśə-ʒə
113.	rotten	*ś°ə	*ś°ə	śa	*ś°ə
114.	branch	*maq°ə//*q̄°ama	*q̄°ama	q̱ap’ə	*maq°ə(-ta )
115.	leaf		*tħapʰa	p’ć’a-pa	*baɣə́
116.	root		*λa-psa	λa-msa (Circ ?)	*da-cə
117.	flower		*q̄a-ɣaɣa		*ś°tə
118.	fruit		*px̌°a-śħa-mə-śħa	(n)ć’°až°a	*ś°ərə
119.	grass		*wəc̄ə	šx̌°a	*šá-ća
120.	earth, soil		*č’ə-g°ə	jəć°a	*nəš°ə
121.	stone		*məź°a	Laqá	*ħa-q°ə
122.	sand	*pč/šaH°a	*pčʰax̌°a	pšax̌°a	*pśaħ°a ‘shore’; *pśləmʒə
123.	water		*psə	bzə	*ʒə
124.	flow		*c̄̌a		*ća
125.	sea	*λ°ə	*xə	š°a	*mašəna
126.	salt	*ǯə́	*čʰə́-ɣ°ə	ǯə́	*ǯə́-k’a
127.	lake		*psə-x̌°ərajə	bzə ś°əja	*ʒə-ja
128.	woods, forest		*mazə	λaxa	*bana
129.	sky	*ź°a(-ʕ°a)	*ź°a-ɣ°a ‘star’; *wa-ś°a	ź°a	*ź°ə-ɦ°a-n(d)ə
130.	sun	*dəɣa	*t̄əɣa	(n)dəɣa	*mara
131.	moon	*məʒa	*maza	məʒa	*məʒə
132.	star	*ć’°a	*ź°a-ɣ°a	ć’°a-(n)k’´	*jać’°a
133.	cloud		*pčʰá	šawəda	*psta
134.	fog		*pčʰá-ɣ°a	nāḇa	*naq’°ə
135.	rain	*k°a/ə	*wa-č´xə	k°ə	*k°a
136.	snow	*s°ə	*wa-sə	ź°a-ʒə	*śə
137.	thunder(n)	*č°ə (?)	*šʰə-bLa		*č°ə
137.	thunder (v.)	*d°əd°ə	*ɣ°aɣ°a	d°əd°ə	*dədə
138.	lightning		*p̄c̄̌ə́-k’á	wašx̌°a (Circ)	*mać°ə-śə
139.	wind		*žə́	t’apsa	*pša
140.	blow		*ja-ps̄̌á	pśax̌°ə	*t°ħ°a
141.	warm		*x°aba	pśə	*px̌a
142.	cold	*č’ə́	*c’ə́-q’a	čə́	*č’ə́-x̌ə́; *x̌ə́
143.	dry	*ʕ°ə́	*ɣ°ə	ɣə	*ɦ°a
144.	wet	*ć’ə	*c’ə-na	ć’ə-(n)ʒ́a
144.	wet	*ʒ́a		bə-ʒ́a-q’a	*aʒ́a
145.	heavy		*want̄aɣ°ə	gə́-(n)t’q’°a	*x̌ánta
146.	fire	*məć’°a	*maś’°a	məǯá	*mca
147.	burn	*ca	*st̄ə	ca	*ca ‘hot’
147.	burn	*bla/ə	*bLa		*blə
148.	smoke	*ʕ°a	*q’°ə-ɣ°a	ɣ°a	*ləɦ°a
149.	ash	*tq°a	*tx̌°a ‘grey’; *jažá	tx̌°a	*q°a ‘ash’, ‘grey’
150.	black	*ć’°a	*ś’°əc’a	ǯá	*ajk°a-ć’°a
151.	white	*λ°ə́	*x°ə-žə́	ś°a	*šə
152.	red	*pλə́	*pλə-žə́	pλə	*apšə́
153.	yellow	*ʕ°a	*ɣ°a-žə́	ɣ°a	*ɦ°ažə́ (Circ)
154.	green		*šx̌°ant’a	ɣ̱a-q’a	*ja-ć’°a
155.	small	*mač’ə́	*mač’á	mač’´	*mač’ə́
156.	big		*čx°a	gə́ʒa	*dəwə
157.	short	*k’áč’ə	*k’áč’ə́	ak’°ə	*k’áč’ə
158.	long	*wa/ə	*k’á-ħə	wa	*awə
159.	thin	*č’°a	*p’q’°a-č’á	ač’á ‘wide, flat’; p’c’a	*č’°a
160.	thick		*ɣ°əmə	ḇəq̱’°ə	*š°-p’a
161.	narrow		*za-ź°ə	məć’ə	*tś°a
162.	wide	*bʕ°á	*bɣ°a	bɣə́	*tə-bɦa
163.	ill, sick		*səma-gá	aḇa	*čə́-ma-za
164.	old	*ž°ə́	*źə	ž°ə	*až°ə
165.	new	*č’a	*č’á	ć’a	*č’a
166.	good		*ś’°ə/a	č’a	*bzəja
167.	bad, evil		*q’aja	agá	*ć°əg’ə́
168.	true		*śə-p̄q̄a	zak’°a (Circ ?)	*ć’a
169.	night	*cəƛə	*c̄̌ə́s̄̌ə́	śəśə	*c(’)əx̌ə
170.	day	*məλ°á	*max°a	məś°a	*məša
171.	year	*s°a/ə	*jəλasə	š°a	*śə-k°ə-ša
172.	when?		səd-jə-ɣ°a (Tem); sət śə-ɣ°a (Kab)	śa-ɣá	*an-ba
173.	hide		*ɣa-bə-λə	qarda	*ć’°ax̌ə
174.	climb		*da-k’°a-ja	-ɣ°a	*qa-la
175.	inside		*da-//*jə-	śa-	*ta-
176.	on (top of)		*tʰ-ja-	bɣá-	*k°ə-
177.	below	*la	*jə-č°a-ɣə	La-ɣ°a	*la-da; *-c’a-q’a
178.	this		*mə	jə-na	*a-rə-jə
179.	that		*a	ajda	*a-nə-jə
180.	near		*bLa-ɣa-laq; -q’a-ʒ	*aj-g°a
181.	far		*c̄̌ə́žá	λa-wa	*qara
182.	where?		tədă (Tem); dănă (Kab)	mā-k’á	*a-ba
183.	I	*sa	*sa	sə-ɣ°a	*sa(-ra)
184.	you (sg.)	*wa	*wa	wə-ɣ°a	*wa(-ra)
185.	(s)he		*a-rə	wa-na//jə-na	*ja(-ra) ‘he’; *la(-ra) ‘she’
186.	we		*t̄a	šə́-ɣ°a	*ħa (-ra)
187.	you (pl.)	*ś°a	*ś°a	ś°ə-ɣ°a	*ś°a(-ra)
188.	they		*a-xa-rə	wa-λa	*da(-ra)
189.	what?		*sə-tʰə; *śə-da	sa	*z-ak’°ə-ja
190.	who?	*xa/ə	*xa-tʰə	šə́(-j)	*d-z-ak’°ə-da
191.	other	*a-də-ra	*a-d-ra	ajda//gáša	*(d-)ača//*adərə
192.	all	*za-gə́	*za-k’á	za-w-žə	*za-gə́
193.	and	*(-jə-)gə́	*jə-k’ə́-jə	-gá	*-jə(-gə́)
194.	how?	*śə-	*sə-tʰə; *śə-da	d(ɣ)an(ə)	*jə-ś-ba
195.	not	*mə	*mə	-mā//mə-	*mə
195.	no		*ħawa		*ma-wə = *ma-wə
196.	count (v.)		*p̄c̄̌a/ə	pλaq’°a	*px̌á-ʒ́a
197.	one	*za	*zə	za	*za
198.	two	*dG°ə	*t’q’°ə	t’q’°a	*ħ°ə
199.	three	*ƛə	*s̄̌’ə	śə/a	*x̌ə
200.	four	*p’ƛ’ə́	*p’λ’ə	p’ƛ’ə	*pš’ə

Semantically organized

English gloss	Common West Caucasian
‘I’	*sa
‘thou’	*wa
‘(s)he/it, this’	*ja-
‘you’	*śᵒa
‘this’	*a
‘there’	*na
‘this’	*wə/a
‘that’	*ra/ə
‘(s)he/it, this’	*ja-
‘other’	*də
‘there’	*da
‘one’	*za
‘two’	*dGᵒə
‘three’	*ƛə
‘four’	*p’ƛ’ə́
‘five’	*txᵒə
‘six’	*ƛᵒə
‘seven’	*bLə́
‘eight’	*jəʕᵒə
‘nine’	*bɣᵒə́
‘ten’	*žᵒa
‘mother’	*(a)na/ə
‘father’	*(a)tᵒə
‘mother/dad’	*baba
‘mummy’, ‘grandmother’	*nana
‘dad’, ‘grandfather’	*dada
‘son’	*qᵒa
‘daughter’	*pHᵒá/ə
‘brother’	*-λá
‘son-/brother-in-law’	*maHᵒə
‘relatives of wife’	*tᵒə-ƛə
‘orphan’	*jə/aba
‘head’ (?)	*š-qa
‘neck’	*tᵒəqə
‘hair’	*q(’)ᵒə
‘hair, wool’	*rasᵒa/ə
‘nose’	*pa
‘mouth’	*č’a
‘mouth, orifice’	*q’ᵒə/a
‘tooth’	*ca
‘tongue’	*bz/źa
‘ear’	*Ła
‘eye’	*b-la
‘hand’	*q’a
‘foot’	*λá
‘bosom, upper part’	*bɣá
‘woman’s breast’	*bəʒə, *ʒəʒa
‘back (part)’	*pxá
‘waist, (small of the) back’	*bĝa/ə
‘belly’	*nək’ᵒa//nəgᵒa
‘hip, thigh, back’	*kᵒa
‘finger’	*ćᵒa
‘skin’	*ćᵒa
‘heart’	*gᵒə́
‘bone’	*bəGᵒə
‘liver’	*ć’ᵒa
‘blood’	*λá
‘spleen’ or ‘stomach’	*ká
‘inside(s)	*c’a
‘rib, side’	*ǯᵒa
‘bile’, ‘gall-bladder’	*zazə
‘kidney’	*źaźa
‘scrotum, testicle’	*ĝá
‘sinew’	*xᵒa
‘height’	*q’ᵒa
‘mountain’	*bĝa/ə
‘hill, mountain’	*xᵒa
‘ravine, river’	*Hᵒə
‘valley, ravine’	*qᵒa
‘field’, ‘open space’	*dᵒə
‘sea’	*λᵒə
‘sand, sandy beach’	*pč/šaHᵒa
‘floodlands, shore’	*(nə-)ga
‘summer’	*ʕᵒá
‘hail, cold’	*śᵒə
‘snow’	*sᵒə
‘snowstorm’, ‘hoarfrost’	*sᵒə-tHᵒa/ə
‘rain’	*kᵒa/ə
‘rain’, ‘hail’	*č́xᵒə
‘stream, torrent (after rain)’	*ʕᵒarə
‘water, river’	*psə
‘sky’	*źᵒa
‘sun’	*dəɣa
‘moon’	*məʒa
‘star’	*ć’ᵒa
‘thunder(-god)’ (?)	*čᵒə
‘thunder’	*dᵒədᵒə
‘fire’	*məć’ᵒa
‘night’	*cəƛə
‘night’	*aqa
‘day’	*məλᵒá
‘kind of big tree (beech or linden)’	*tᵒa
‘beech/plane/oak’	*bǯá/ə
‘kind of tree (hornbeam/beech/maple)’	*čá/ə
‘plane/maple-tree’	*məč’ə́
‘spruce/fir-/ pine-tree’	*psa
‘linden/willow’	*bzə
‘pine-wood’, ‘prickly tree’, ‘bush, shrub’	*məʒ́ə
‘bush shrub’	*k’ᵒə
‘prickle’	*ma/ə(ɣə)ɣə
‘prickled bush’	*bana
‘box-tree’	*ša-sə
‘kind of evergreen tree (like laurel, juniper, holly)’	*dəɣa-
‘tree, trunk’	*ʕᵒa/ənə
‘wood (as material)’	*məHá
‘wood (as material)’, ‘firewood’	*məč’ə
‘wood’	*sə
‘large tree (trunk)’, ‘grass (for making hay)’	*ža
‘grass (for making hay)’	*tᵒa
‘cornel fruit’	*ʒ́a(-rə)
‘chestnut’	*šx̌ᵒá
‘nut’	*ra
‘wild apple’	*mə
‘fig’	*laHᵒə́
‘fruit/apple’	*ć’ᵒa
‘wild grapes, liana’	*məšᵒə́
‘grape’, ‘corncob’	*šx̌ᵒə
‘(straw)berry’	*mark’ᵒa
‘plum’	*pqᵒə//pHᵒə
‘a cherry’	*tᵒá
‘pear’	*qᵒá
‘(juicy) ripe fruit’	*t’a/əma/ə
‘onion’	*(b)ǯə́(-nə)
‘reed’	*p’q’a/ə-
‘twigs (for wattle)’, ‘wattle’	*baća
‘root’	*cə
‘(to) hunt’	*šᵒa
‘fox’	*baga
‘marten’	*cəʒa
‘small animal like mouse or marten’	*cəɣᵒa/ə
‘goat, deer’	*(a)ča
‘deer, beast’	*šᵒə́
‘deer’	*λə́
‘bear’	*məšᵒə́
‘hare’	*(a)La
‘reptile (like frog or snake)’	*(H)ant’a
‘lizard’	*-cəšə
‘mouse, rat’	*qᵒənə//Hᵒənə
‘worm’	*xᵒa
‘fly, locust’	*mać’a
‘small insect’ (beetle or flea)	*bžə
‘mosquito’	*k’ᵒəb/mə-
‘flying insect (like gadfly or moth)’	*ʕᵒə(-dᵒə)
‘fly’, ‘flea’	*ʒ́a/ə
‘louse’	*ć’a
‘tick’	*ba(mə)č’a
‘middle-sized bird like raven, crow or woodpecker’	*qᵒaLa
‘rook, raven’, or ‘dove’	*raHᵒa//raqᵒa
‘rook, raven’	*ćᵒəndə
‘small bird’	*(p’)ć’a
‘owl’	*t(’)ə
‘eagle-owl’	*t(')ə-ʕᵒərə-ʕərə
‘quail’	*nəbʕᵒá
‘kind of cereal (millet)’	*(a)ča
‘millet’, ‘millet (in field)’	*pšə
‘millet’	*ma/əƛə́
‘millet’	*λᵒə́
‘to plough’	*źᵒa, *ćᵒa
‘quantity, measure (e.g. of land to be cultivated)’	*mata
‘to weed, mow’	*(p’)č’á/ə
‘to sow’	*(p)sa
‘to sow by strewing’	*px̌a
‘seed, stone of fruit’	*ƛᵒəla
‘to rip, mow, saw’	*xə
‘threshing floor’	*Hamə
‘to pound, grind’	*bə/a
‘to grind, pound’	*dᵒədᵒə
‘to pound, thresh (seeds), husk grains out of ears’	*tᵒa
‘to husk’	*źɣə
‘to pound, husk’	*gᵒə
‘mortar for threshing grains’	*gᵒə́-Hᵒə
‘mill’	*wə
‘to grind, thresh, mill’	*laga
‘to grind, mill, thresh’	*čá/ə
‘horse’	*čə
‘stallion’	*λᵒa-k’ᵒá
‘donkey’	*č(́)ədə
‘bull’	*ćᵒə
‘cow’	*źᵒə
‘cow (with small udder)’	*gᵒəma
‘camel’	*max̌(ᵒ)ča
‘ram’	*t(’)ə
‘sheep’, ‘price’	*wasa
‘goat’	*st(’)a, *waGə(jə), *bǯánə
‘kid, young goat’	*kə/ac(’)ə
‘kid, goatling’, ‘small of animals’	*ʒ́ə
‘swine/pig’	*qᵒa//Hᵒa
‘dog’	*Hᵒa
‘rooster’	*ataqa
‘hen’	*k(’ᵒ)a/ət(’)ə
‘herd, flock’	*gᵒarta
‘to butt (as cow)’	*gə́/a
‘trough for house animals’	*jaGᵒa
‘to milk’	*xá
‘dung, manure’	*wacə/a
‘to graze, pasture’	*Hᵒə
‘yoke’, ‘to tame, subdue’	*bžə́
‘(fenced) enclosure’	*gᵒa
‘covered enclosure’, ‘wall’	*ʒ́a
‘hut’	*kála/ə
‘house’	*ʕᵒəna
‘fort’, ‘stone fence’	*abʕa
‘house’	*ćᵒəja
‘settlement with sheds for cattle’	*kata
‘wood for fire or as material’	*məč’ə
‘smoke’	*ɣᵒa
‘ashes’	*tqᵒa
‘device for producing light, candle’	*məza
‘vessel’	*šəqᵒə
‘basin, mug’	*č(́)aq’ᵒə/a
‘cord, rope’	*ša
‘awl’ (from the verb dᵒá ‘to sew’)	*dᵒá(-dᵒé)
‘needle’	*gᵒərə
‘to wattle’, ‘to wind thread’	*č’ə́č’ə́
‘to plait, wattle’	*λᵒə
‘wattle’	*kᵒanə
‘to weave’	*śə/a
‘bobbin or shuttle used while making thread’	*kᵒa
‘weaving loom’, ‘pivot of the shuttle’	*x̌ᵒə/a
‘to knit, weave, spin thread’	*x̌a
‘hair, wool’	*rasᵒə/a
‘to pinch’, ‘to card (wool)’	*(s)k’ᵒa(-k’ᵒə)
‘to card (wool)’	*pxə
‘felt’	*wə/ap’a
‘to plane, shave, sharpen’	*psə
‘to rough-hew, carpenter’	*ʒ́a
‘stake, pole, plank’	*ɣᵒə
‘beam’	*bla
‘to coat (the walls of the house)’	*ja
‘to scutch, swindle, comb (flax)’	*zᵒə
‘wax’	*ƛᵒa
‘honeycomb’	*ƛᵒa-məɣᵒá//məɣᵒá-ƛᵒa
‘axe’	*gᵒášᵒə́
‘sabre, sword’	*asᵒa
‘arrow’	*ƛá
‘oar’, ‘rudder’	*źᵒa
‘metal’	*ʕᵒə
‘red copper’ (lit. ‘red metal’)	*ʕᵒə-pλa
‘white copper’ (lit. ‘white metal’)	*ʕᵒə-λᵒa
‘iron’ (lit. ‘black metal’)	*ʕᵒə-ć’ᵒa
‘silver’	*raǯᵒə́nə
‘lead’	*amp’a, *t’əsa
‘to forge’	*k’ə́
‘blacksmith’	*ʕᵒə-k’ə́
‘smithy’	*k’ə́-ƛə
‘to melt, fuse’	*bžə́
‘anvil’	*(p)sə(n)gə́
‘the god of the smithy’	*λáśᵒə
‘to evaluate, pay’	*śᵒa
‘to sell’	*ƛa
‘to buy’	*xᵒə
‘to exchange, buy, take’	*x̌ᵒa
‘loan’, ‘to borrow’	*ʕa
‘sheep’, ‘price’	*wasa
‘dear, expensive’	*λá-p’q’ᵒa
‘army’	*ra
‘seed, stone of fruit’, ‘population of village’, ‘clan’	*ƛᵒə́́la
‘prince’	*Há/ə
‘captive, slave’	*ɣarə
‘soul’	*psa
‘grave’	*qa
‘sky, heaven’, ‘god’	*wa
‘dragon’	*t’əGᵒa
‘god of the smithy’	*λáśᵒə
‘lightning’, ‘god of lightning’ (?)	*čᵒə
‘textile, linen’	*ša/ə
‘short jacket’ (< *k’áč’ə ‘short’)	*k’áč’ə
‘fur-coat’	*tqamə
‘nail or metallic clasp’	*q’ᵒəna
‘buckle, clasp’	*pəǯə́
‘food’	*xá
‘kind of food’	*ɣá-čə́//čá-ɣá
‘meat, flesh’	*Lə
‘(internal) fat’	*ša
‘salt’	*ǯə́
‘milk’	*čá
‘cheese’	*qᵒa-
‘butter’	*tx̌ᵒə
‘honey’	*śᵒa
‘wine’	*ʕᵒə
‘to roast, bake’	*ʒ́ə/a
‘to fry’	*(b)ǯá/ə
‘to boil’	*źᵒa
‘to cut or pinch dough’; cf. also *fa/ə ‘to eat’	*bək'ə
‘sharp’	*(p’)ć'a
‘warm, hot’	*λᵒa
‘dry’	*ʕᵒə́
‘cold’	*č’ə́
‘wet’	*t’ə/a
‘wet’	*ʒ́a
‘wet, humid’	*ć’ə
‘white’	*λᵒə́
‘red’	*pλə́
‘yellow’	*ʕᵒa
‘black’	*ć’ᵒa
‘black’	*ǯá
‘small, little’	*mač’ə́
‘small’	*t’a
‘short, small’	*gᵒə
‘short’	*k’áč’ə
‘long’	*wa/ə
‘thin’	*č’ᵒa
‘narrow’	*məć’ə
‘wide’	*bʕᵒá
‘old’	*žᵒə́
‘new’	*č’a
‘young, new’	*ć’a
‘good’	*č(’)a
‘bad, lacking’	*(a)g(́)a
‘bad, evil’	*(a)ćᵒa/ə
‘fluffy, downy’	*bəbə
‘large, thick’	*p’a
‘mild, soft’	*t’at’a
‘naked, clean’	*p’ć’a
‘sour’	*ć’ᵒa
‘light, quick’	*l/wasə
‘slow’	*źaźa
‘strong’	*šx̌ᵒa
‘thin, weak’	*abʕa