Wiktionary:About Proto-Japonic

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Proto-Japonic is the reconstructed language of the ancestral Japonic language family, which consists of Japanese, Ryukyuan, Hachijō, and possibly Peninsular Japonic. As Proto-Japonic is a reconstructed language, all entries must be in the Reconstruction mainspace.

Abbreviations[edit]

  • PJ - Proto-Japonic
  • PR - Proto-Ryukyuan
  • OJ - Old Japanese
  • EMJ - Early Middle Japanese
  • MDJ - (Modern) Japanese

Phylogeny[edit]

The descendants of Proto-Japonic include:[1][2][note 1]

Phylogeny
  • Proto-Japonic
    • Proto-Japanese (unlisted)
      • † Eastern Old Japanese
        • Hachijō Japanese
      • † Kyūshū Old Japanese
      • † (Western) Old Japanese
        • † Early Middle Japanese (unlisted)
          • † Late Middle Japanese (unlisted)
            • (Modern) Japanese (including modern dialects)
    • Proto-Ryukyuan
      • Northern Ryukyuan
        • Kikai
          • Aden (main; unlisted)
          • Shitōke (main; unlisted)
        • Kunigami
          • Hentona (unlisted)
          • Ieshima (unlisted)
          • Nago (unlisted)
          • Oku (unlisted)
          • Sakimotobu (unlisted)
          • Sumuide (unlisted)
          • Yonamine, Nakijin (main; unlisted)
        • Northern Amami-Oshima
          • Naze (main; unlisted)
          • Yamatohama (main; unlisted)
          • Yuwan (unlisted)
        • Okinawan
          • Ishikawa (unlisted)
          • Shuri (main; unlisted)
            • Naha (main; unlisted)
        • Oki-No-Erabu
          • Kamishiro (unlisted)
          • Serikaku (main; unlisted)
          • Tamina (unlisted)
          • Tetechina (main; unlisted)
        • Southern Amami-Oshima
          • Koniya (main; unlisted)
          • Shodon (main; unlisted)
        • Toku-No-Shima
          • Asama (unlisted)
          • Inō (main; unlisted)
          • Kametsu (main; unlisted)
          • Matsubara (unlisted)
          • San (unlisted)
        • Yoron
          • Chabana (main; unlisted)
          • Mugiya (unlisted)
      • Southern Ryukyuan
        • Miyako
          • Hirara (main; unlisted)
          • Ikema (unlisted)
          • Nakasuji (unlisted)
          • Ōgami (unlisted)
          • Ōura (unlisted)
          • Sarahama (unlisted)
          • Uechi (Unlisted)
          • Yonaha (unlisted)
        • Yaeyama
          • Hateruma (unlisted)
          • Ishigaki (main; unlisted)
          • Kabira (unlisted)
          • Kobama (unlisted)
          • Kuroshima (unlisted)
          • Ōbama (unlisted)
          • Sonai (unlisted)
          • Taketomi (unlisted)
        • Yonaguni
    • →? † Peninsular-Japonic

Yonaguni also has some shared innovations with Yaeyama, leading Pellard to believe that Yonaguni should be grouped into Yaeyama (Macro-Yaeyama), while the actual Yaeyama language family is called Nuclear Yaeyama (Pellard 2015, 20). Thorpe believes Yonaguni should be considered a third branch of Ryukyuan, descending from an early dialect in Okinawa. He also posits Taketomi as an early South Okinawan dialect that was reshaped by neighboring Yaeyaman varieties, and that the Yuwan dialect in Amami Ōshima is derived from a back-migration from Yoron Island.[3]

A reconstruction can be reliable if it's attested abundantly in the Japanese (particularly Old Japanese, and even Eastern Old Japanese) and Ryukyuan branches (e.g. PJ *kutui (“mouth”) or PJ *kamui (“god”)).

It's best to put sources for the descendants (e.g. PR *iwo (“fish”)). Either directly use the references manually, or you can use {{jpx-ref|[AUTHOR'S LAST NAME] ([YEAR])}} in an entry (has pre-made reference templates).

Reconstructions[edit]

See Category:Proto-Japonic lemmas.

Transcription and phonology[edit]

The transcription uses modified Hepburn romanization.

Vowels[edit]

Six vowels can be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic:[4][5][6][7]

i u
e[note 2] ə o[note 2]
a

Diphthongs[edit]

Diphthongs that can be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic include *ui, *oi, *əi, *ai, *ia, *iə, ua, and au.[4][8][note 3]

Standalone forms and combining forms[edit]

Some Japanese nouns have two stems; an atomic root form, and one in which the final vowel is fronted. The second form appears when the word is used as a standalone noun or as the latter element in a compound. Words showing this alternation include 雨 (ame, “rain”) ~ 雨雲 (amagumo, “rain clouds”) (< PJ *amay), 火 (hi, “fire”), 炎 (honō, “flames”), etc. In Japanese linguistics, the form of these nouns ending with the front vowels /e, i/ is called the 露出形 (roshutsukei, “exposed form”, when used as a standalone or the latter element in a compound and the final vowel of the noun is "exposed"), and the form with the back or open vowels /u, o, a/ is called the 被覆形 (hifukukei, “hidden form”, when used as the first element of a compound and the final vowel of the noun is "hidden" by the following compounding element).

In Proto-Japonic, this vowel-fronting element is reconstructed by some as *-i, as seen in Hattori and Pellard's works. Vovin also reconstructs *-y, although this appears to be based on Ainu loanword evidence (compare Ainu カムイ (kamuy, “god”) or パスイ (pasuy, “chopsticks”, potentially whence Japanese 箸 (hashi, “chopsticks”, < PJ *pasuy))), and the prohibition of consonant clusters. The final *-y is deleted in ancient compounds (e.g. *may (“eye”) and *mapia (“front”)) and in Eastern Old Japanese (*Oy;[note 4] compare 月 (tuku, “moon”, Eastern Old Japanese) (< PJ *tukuy) and 火 (pu, “fire”, Eastern Old Japanese; hapax legomenon found as a suffix) (< PJ *poy via vowel raising)), while monophthongization occurs as a standalone noun.

Alexander Vovin traces this *-y element to an earlier *-r (see PJ *wasay (“early rice”)), but this appears to be based solely on Korean 쌀 (ssal, “rice”).[9] Other word-final consonants have been suggested (such as /*-n/, based on the 2.5 accent pattern which survived in Kansai), but these are speculative. The Hateruma/Shiraho and Yonaguni final nasals are certainly parallel innovations and are not indicative of an archaism.

Vowel correspondences[edit]

Within Old Japanese and Proto-Ryukyuan:[4][10]

Vowel correspondences[note 3]
Old Japanese Proto-Japonic Proto-Ryukyuan
i1 *i *i
i2 *ui *i
i2 *oi *i
i2 (e2) *əi *e
e2 *ai *e
e1 *ia *e
e1 *iə *e
i1 (e1) *e *e
u *u *u
o1 *ua *o
o1 *au[note 5] *o
u (o1) *o *o
o2 *ə *o
a *a *a

Unknown vowels[edit]

If a word cannot be determined an unraised vowel, or a type of vowel is unknown, these cover symbols are used:

  • Unknown back vowel */o/ or */u/: *U
  • Unknown front vowel */e/ or */i/: *I
  • Unknown mid vowels */o/ or */ə/: *O

Consonants[edit]

Proto-Japonic has the reconstructed consonant inventory of */p/, */t/, */k/, */np/, */nt/, */nk/, */m/, */n/,[note 6] */s/, */ns/, */r/, */w/, and */j/ (or y in non-IPA notation).[7][note 7][note 6]

Voiced consonants in Old Japanese and Proto-Ryukyuan are thought to be derived from the pre-nasalized consonant + consonant clusters */np/, */nt/, */nk/, */ns/.[7]

Pitch accent[edit]

The following accent patterns can be reconstructed for Proto-Japonic (an abbreviation indicates dubiousness, but after an accent, implies the accent in a particle if the accent is different):

Proto-Japonic accent patterns
Syllables Accent Class Heian period Kyoto accent Tokyo Kyoto Kagoshima Proto-Ryukyuan Notes
1 1 Hː L Hː F A All monosyllables in Kyoto undergo vowel lengthening.
1 2 Fː H Hː F A Most Tokyo dialects, including "standard" Japanese, only have L accent.
1 3 Lː L HL H(L) B
2 1 HH HH HH HL A
2 2 HL LH(L) HL HL A
2 3 LL LH(L) HL LH(L) B, (C) Proto-Ryukyuan tone class C rarely occurs in some 2.3 words (e.g. *panki (“foot; leg”) > *pagi)
2 4 LH HL LH LH(L) B, C
2 5 LF HL LF LH(L) B, C
3 1 HHH LHH HHH LHL A
3 2 HHL LHH LHL LHL A
3 (3) HLL HLL HLL LHL A This accent class only contains a few words, many of which, are obvious compounds. Thus, this accent class has been rejected in modern scholarship, and Yosuke Igarashi appears to reconstruct Pre-Proto-Japonic accent classes (e.g. *konkanay (“gold”) < 3.1 and *tikara (“power, strength”) < 3.2)
3 4 LLL LLH(L) HLL LLH(L) B, (C) Proto-Ryukyuan tone class C rarely occurs in some 3.4 words (e.g. *katana (“single-edged blade”) > *katana)
3 5 LLH LHH HLL B B, C
3 6 LHH LHH LLH ~ LLL(H) LLH(L) B, C
3 7 LHL HLL LHL LLH(L) C

Vovin (2008) proposes that the falling pitch of 2.5 nouns were derived from a final *-m, based on both internal and external evidence (see also Vovin (2014)). For internal examples, 早 (haya, “quickly”, accent class 2.5) has a verb 早める (hayameru, “to quicken”), and 長 (osa, “elder; boss”, accent class 2.5) has a verb 収める (osameru, “to control”). For external instances, see *asa (“morning”) and *turu (“crane”). He also assumes the the low register goes back to an initial voiced consonant, claiming that this is how the low register corresponding to Proto-Ryukyuan tone class B has developed from such. However, the theory is unreasonable.

Tonal correspondences of Proto-Ryukyuan tone classes
Syllable Count Tone Class Asama Wadomari Yoron Nakijin Shuri Tarama (X=mai... 'X is also...') Ishigaki Yonaguni Notes
1 A Hː Rː Lː Hː Fː Lː=LL Fː Hː All vowels of monosyllabic words in Ryukyuan languages lengthen.
1 B Hː Hː Lː Rː Lː Hː=HL Hː Lː All vowels of monosyllabic words in Ryukyuan languages lengthen.
2 A HHː LHˑ LL LHː HL LL=LL HL LH
2 B LRː LRː LH LRː LL HH=HL HH LL
2 C LːH LF HH HL(ː) LːL HL=LL HH LF Asama and Shuri lengthen the initial syllable in this tone class.
3 A HHːL or HHH LHH LLL LHːL HHL LLL=LL LHL LHH
3 B LLRː LLRː LHH LLHː LLL HHH=HL HHH LLL
3 C LL(ː)H LLH HHH LLːH LLL HHL=LL HHH LHF

Key[edit]

  • H - High pitch.
  • L - Low pitch.
  • R - Rising pitch.
  • F - Falling pitch.

Unraised medial vowels[edit]

Normally, Proto-Japonic /e/ and /o/ raises to /i/ and /o/ in attested daughter languages. An example is Proto-Japonic *eku (“how many; how much”) and Proto-Japonic *ika (“squid”), or Proto-Japonic *moko (“bridegroom; son-in-law”) and Proto-Japonic *muk- (“to face”).

There are word medial e1 and o1 in Old Japanese that cannot be explained away as originating from diphthongs.[12] Examples include:

  • e1
    • 箆 (pe1ra, “moldboard, spatula”)
    • 今日 (ke1pu, “today”)
    • 叫ぶ (sake1bu, “to shout”)
    • 帰る (kape1ru, “to return”, intransitive), 返す (kape1su, “to return”, transitive)
    • 朮 (uke1ra, “Atractylodes japonica”) (< PJ *wokera; no Ryukyuan cognates, which is unsurprising as the plant is not native there)
    • 照る (teru, “to shine”)
  • o1
    • 恋 (ko1pi2, “love”) (< PJ *kopoy)
    • 焦ぐ (ko1gu, “to burn”)
    • 苫 (to1ma, “woven rain-cover”)
    • 空 (so1ra, “sky”) (< PJ *sora)
    • 虎 (tora, “tiger”) (< PJ *tora)
    • 弱 (yowa-, “weak”) (< PJ *yowa)
    • 鵙 (mo1zu, “shrike”)
    • 海蓴 (ko1mo, “eelgrass”)

These should be reconstructed with a medial *-e- and medial *-o- in Proto-Japonic, unless excepted (e.g. internal etymologies such as PJ *kansuapu (“to count”), from *kansu (“number”) + *apu (“to put together”)[13]).

Speculatively, most of the unraised *o seems to be adjacent to *a, suggesting that the adjacency blocked vowel raising in Mainland Japanese.

Verbs[edit]

For the time being, verbs should be reconstructed as root + terminal suffix *-u. There has been arguments that the terminal suffix must have contracted an ancient root form, but there is no proper consensus about this on Wiktionary.

In the Ryukyuan languages, some verbs appear to derive from the 連用形 (ren'yōkei, “stem or continuative form”) + *worV-, an auxiliary suffix cognate with 居る (oru < woru, “to be, to exist”).[14]

An example:

Adjectives[edit]

Use only the adjective root, not a suffix added to it. For example, Japanese 甘い (amai, “sweet”) descends from Proto-Japonic *ama, without a **-sV suffix. Exceptions are シク活用 (shiku katsuyō, “shiku adjective”): e.g. *pəsi (“wanted, desired”), *kanasi (“emotionally overwhelming”).

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ (unlisted) means do not include it in the descendants. (Western) Old Japanese must simply be called Old Japanese {{desc|ojp|-|tr=-}}, while (Modern) Japanese must simply be called Japanese {{desc|ja|-|tr=-}}.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 These two vowels have been obtained from comparative reconstruction within the Ryukyuan languages and dialects.[5] The other four vowels have been obtained from internal reconstruction within Old Japanese.[5]
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 The status of diphthong *io is unknown. See the discussion of Japanese 虹 ("rainbow"); the proto-form was likely *nonsi based off Ryukyuan and Eastern Old Japanese evidence, but argued to have an earlier Pre-Proto-Japonic form */Mionsi/.
  4. ^ *O indicates either *o or *u.
  5. ^ The status of this diphthong is controversial, as it's only supported by external evidence.[11] But compare Old Japanese 黒 (kuro1, “black”) to Old Japanese 暗 (kura, “dark”).
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 The pre-nasalized + voiceless consonant cluster was originally written in capital letters as *NC, where C denotes an unknown consonant. The nasal will be spelled as *n.
  7. ^ Some linguists (especially advocates of a relation of Proto-Japonic to other languages or "Altaic") reconstruct voiced */b/ and */d/, such as by reconstructing the Proto-Japonic form of Japanese 焼く (“to burn, to grill”) as *daka- instead of *yaku. However, cross-linguistic evidence within the Japonic grouping rules out these reconstructions, and we do not include */b/ and */d/ in the list of Proto-Japonic consonants.

References[edit]

  1. ^ Vovin (2014) s. 8-10
  2. ^ Thorpe (1983) p. vii-viii
  3. ^ Thorpe (1983) p. vii-viii
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Pellard (2008) p. 136
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Vovin (2010) p. 32
  6. ^ Pellard (2013) p. 83
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Pellard (2019) p. 2
  8. ^ Pellard (2013) p. 90
  9. ^ Vovin (2015) p. 235
  10. ^ Pellard (2013) p. 91
  11. ^ Vovin (2020) p. 46
  12. ^ Pellard (2013) p. 92-93
  13. ^ Vovin (2020) p. 46
  14. ^ Pellard (2023) p. 15

Further reading[edit]

See also[edit]

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