User:Kwékwlos/Sound changes from Indo-European to Japonic

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This page will show many intricate details on how Proto-Indo-European evolved into Proto-Japonic. Please note that all of this is very speculative, so be warned.

Proto-Indo-European to Early Proto-Indo-Iranian (3000 BCE to 2000 BCE)

[edit]
  1. Fronting of palatovelar consonants into affricates (*ḱ > , > *ȷ́, *ǵʰ > *ȷ́ʰ).
    *ḱwitrós (white) > *ćwitrós > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (white) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *ǵn̥néh₃ti (to know) > *ȷ́n̥néh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (to know) 2.I H- (irregular accent)
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimós > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simú > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  2. Labiovelar consonants become plain velar consonants (*kʷ > *k, *gʷ > *g, *gʷʰ > *gʰ).
    *gʷem- (to come, step) > *gém- > *gʲam- > *gḿ̥- > *kún- > *kuru (to come) 2.I H-
    *gʷʰénti (to kill) > *gʰénti > *gʲʰánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (to kill) 3.I H-
    *kʷekʷlóm (wheel) > *keklóm > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (car, wheel) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
  3. Change of *l and *l̥ to *r and *r̥.
    *léwkos (light) > *réwkos > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkʲas > *ákar-í > *akari (light) 3.1 HHH
    *pl̥th₂ús (broad, wide) > *pr̥th₂ús > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (broad, wide) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  4. Palatalization of s before *r/ (also includes those from *l/*l̥), *u/*w, *k, and *i/*y as .
    *usmé- (you) > *ušmé- > *ušmá- > *uššá- (irregular change) > *ura 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
    *kr̥snós (black) > *kr̥šnós > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥nú > *kuro (black) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *h₂úsmn̥ (ear) > *h₂úšmn̥ > *Húšma > *HušmnìH (dual form) > *(u)mini > *memi (ear) 2.3 LL (irregular assimilation)
    *néwistHos (newest) > *néwištHos > *náwištʰas > *nawíštas > *napíra > *mapya (before, front) 2.5 LF (irregular labial assimilation)
  5. Bartholomae's law (voicing assimilation after aspirated consonants)
    *semdʰh₁tós (put together) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santá-m- > *santamu (to decide, establish, fix) 3.II L-
  6. Palatalization of velars before *e, , or *i (*k > *kʲ, *g > *gʲ, *gʷʰ > *gʲʰ)
    *gʷem- (to come, step) > *gém- > *gʲam- > *gḿ̥- > *kún- > *kuru (to come) 2.I H-
    *gʷʰénti (to kill) > *gʰénti > *gʲʰánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (to kill) 3.I H-
    *gʷʰéntōr (one which strikes) > *gʲʰéntōr > *gʲʰántā > *gń̥tras (remodeling) > *kń̥su > *kensu (wound) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
    *skinédti (to cut) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kiri (to cut) 2.II L-
  7. Brugmann's law (open-syllabic *o > )
    *h₁nómn̥ (name) > *h₁nṓmn̥ > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *na (name) 1.2 H(L)
    *ǵónu (knee) > *ǵṓnu > *ȷ́ā́nu > *upa-ȷ́ā́nu (addition of prefix) > *upasánu > *pisa, *pinsa (knee) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH
  8. *h₂ before a vowel and after a voiceless stop creates a voiceless aspirated consonant (*ph₂ > , *th₂ > *tʰ, *kh₂ > *kʰ)
    *pl̥th₂ús (broad, wide) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (broad, wide) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  9. Merger of the three laryngeals *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ (after vowel coloring) as *H.
    *ǵn̥néh₃ti (to know) > *ȷ́n̥néHti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (to know) 2.I H- (irregular accent)
    *h₁ésti (to be) > *Hésti > *Hásti > *ari (to be) 2.II L- (accent neutralization due to clause position)
    *h₂énh₂ts (duck) > *HānHtíš > *Hāntíš > *anti (duck) 2.x
  10. A laryngeal between two consonants vocalizes as *i, or disappears.
    *dʰugh₂tḗr (daughter) > *dʰugʲitā́ > *duyitā́ (irregular change) > *titə́ > *itə (daughter, girl) 2.x
    *semdʰh₁tós (put together) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santá-m- > *santamu (to decide, establish, fix) 3.II L-
  11. Merger of *e, *o as *a, and as .
    *h₁ésti (to be) > *Hásti > *ari (to be) 2.II L- (accent neutralization due to clause position)
    *kʷekʷlóm (wheel) > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (car, wheel) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
    *swésōr (sister) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (younger brother, younger sister) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF
    *wŕ̥sēn (male, man) > *wŕ̥šā > *ŕ̥šā (irregular change) > *ŕ̥ra > *úra > *wo (male, man) 1.3 L

Early Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Japonic-Nuristani (2000 BCE to 1500 BCE)

[edit]
  1. Aspirated consonants lose their aspiration (*bʰ > *b, *dʰ > *d, *gʰ > *g, *gʲʰ > *gʲ, *ȷ́ʰ > *ȷ́, *pʰ > *p, *tʰ > *t, *kʰ > *k).
    *bʰéh₂os (light) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *por-ì > *poi (fire) 1.3 L
    *dʰéreti (to hold) > *dʰárati > *túrari > *tuàr- > *toru (to hold) 2.II L-
    *gʰo (emphatic particle) > *gʰa > *ga > *-nV-ka (with preposed genitive) > *-nka (genitive particle)
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simú > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *pl̥th₂ús (broad, wide) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (broad, wide) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  2. Initial *r or *Hr becomes .
    *h₃eletnís (elbow) > *Haratníš > *upa-Hratníš (addition of prefix) > *upařatníš > *upantì (metathesis) > *penti (elbow) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL
    *léwkos (light) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkʲas > *ákar-í > *akari (light) 3.1 HHH
  3. Loss of the laryngeal *H between two vowels, probably conditioned by accent. If a sequence of two distinct vowels results, a glide is inserted, otherwise they merge.
    *bʰéh₂os (light) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *por-ì > *poi (fire) 1.3 L
    *ḱr̥h₂wíh₂ (head) > *ćr̥HwíH > *ćruwíH > *suwí > *suwe (top) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
    *n̥dʰí + *h₁éyti (to go) > *n̥dʰiHáyti > *n̥dáyti (glide dissimilation) > *n̥tári > *intai (to go out) 2.II L-
    *pr̥h₂wíyos (first) > *pr̥Hwíyas > *pruwíyas > *puwì > *upi (first) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH
  4. Reduction of syllable-initial *an as *n̥ followed by shortening of syllable-initial *ān as *an.
    *h₁entér (inside, within) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *n̥túri > *utui (inside, within) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH
    *h₂entikós (near) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *n̥tiká > *tika (near) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *h₃éngʷn̥ (fat) + *bʰr̥tós (borne) > *Hāngnabʰr̥tám (irregular long vowel) > *Hangnabr̥tám > *annapr̥rá > *anpura (fat) 3.5b LLH

Proto-Japonic-Nuristani to Pre-Proto-Japonic (1500 BCE to 1000 BCE)

[edit]
  1. The syllabic consonants *m̥, *n̥, *r̥ become *am, *un, *ur syllable-finally; else they are retained.
    *gʷíh₃wontm̥ (living) > *gʲíHwantm̥ > *gʲiHwántam > *kiwúnta > *kiyora (beautiful, clear) 3.5b/3.6b LLH/LHH
    *h₁nómn̥ (name) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnā́mun > *námu > *na (name) 1.2 H(L)
    *sm̥kŕ̥t (at once) > *sm̥kŕ̥t > *sm̥kúrt > *sunku (at once) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF
  2. Single becomes *o, except when unaccented, is followed by *u, or in word-final position, where it becomes *a instead.
    *dʰwórom (door) > *dʰwā́ram > *dwóram > *twóra > *to (door) 1.1 H(H)
    *ǵónu (knee) > *ȷ́ā́nu > *upa-ȷ́ā́nu (addition of prefix) > *upaȷ́ánu > *upasánu > *pisa, *pinsa (knee) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH
    *h₁éh₁tmō (soul, spirit) > *HáHtmā > *tmā́ > *tmá > *tama (soul, spirit) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *h₁nómn̥ (name) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnámun > *námu > *na (name) 1.2 H(L)
    *mḗms (flesh, meat) > *mā́ms > *móms-i > *múri > *mui (flesh, meat) 1.1 H(H)
    *swésōr (sister) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swasá > *sosa (younger brother, younger sister) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF
  3. *wa becomes *wu when not word-initial or word-final (although it may be a later development).
    *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s (tongue) > *diȷ́ʰwáH > *diȷ́wáH > *tićwáH > *ćitwáH > *sitwá > *sita (tongue) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *swésōr (sister) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (younger brother, younger sister) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF
  4. Secondary palatovelars lose their palatalization (*kʲ > *k, *gʲ > *g).
    *gʷʰénti (to kill) > *gʲʰánti > *kánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (to kill) 3.I H-
    *léwkos (light) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkas > *ákar-í > *akari (light) 3.1 HHH
    *kʷekʷlóm (wheel) > *keklóm > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (car, wheel) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
  5. Simplification of *tˢt and *dᶻd as *tt, *dd
    *bʰidtós (split) > *bʰitˢtás > *bittás > *pittá > *ita (board, plank) 2.4b LH
    *semdʰh₁tós (put together) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *samddás > *santá-m- > *santamu (to decide, establish, fix) 3.II L-
    *skinédti (to cut) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *skinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (to cut) 2.II L-
  6. Loss of *s before a voiceless stop (*sp > *p, *st > *t, *sk > *k)
    *skinédti (to cut) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *kinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (to cut) 2.II L-
    *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (shade, shadow) > *skʲaHyáH > *kaHikáH > *kayiká > *kankai (shade, shadow) 2.5a LF
    *sph₁eh₁yós (prosperous) > *spʰaHyás > *paHyás > *payyá > *paya (early, quick) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *stísteh₂ti (to stand) > *stíštaHti > *státaHti (remodeling) > *tátaHti > *tat- > *tatu (to stand) 2.II L- (irregular accent)
  7. Voiced consonants are devoiced (*b > *p, *d > *t, *g > *k, *ȷ́ > ).
    *bʰidtós (split) > *bʰitˢtás > *pittás > *ita (board, plank) 2.4b LH
    *dʰuh₂mós (smoke) > *dʰuHmás > *dúHmriH (remodeling) > *túHmriH > *tū́mri > *tiri (dust) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
    *gʰo (emphatic particle) > *gʰa > *ga > *ka > *-nV-ka (with preposed genitive) > *-nka (genitive particle)
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *ćimás > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  8. Loss of (could be a later development).
    *h₃eletnís (elbow) > *Haratníš > *upa-Hratníš (addition of prefix) > *upantíš (metathesis) > *upantì > *penti (elbow) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL
    *léwkos (light) > *ráwkʲas > *řáwkas > *ákar-í > *akari (light) 3.1 HHH
  9. *kš becomes word-initially or *ćć word-medially before high vowels.
    *uksḗn (bull, ox) > *ukšā́ > *ukšínas (remodeling) > *uććínas > *usi (bull, cow, ox) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH
  10. Phonemic split of *a into *a and under complex, unclear conditions.
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ćimë́s > *simú > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *h₁entér (inside, within) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *Hn̥të́ri > *n̥túri > *utui (inside, within) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH
    *kr̥snós (black) > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥šnë́s > *kr̥nú > *kuro (black) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *kʷr̥tóm (action, deed, work) > *kr̥tám > *kr̥të́m > *kr̥tə́ > *kətə (action, deed, work) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL

Pre-Proto-Japonic to Early Proto-Japonic (1000 BCE to 700 BCE)

[edit]
  1. Loss of final consonants.
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ćimë́ > *simu > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *h₁nómn̥ (name) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námun > *námu > *na (name) 1.2 H(L)
    *sm̥kŕ̥t (at once) > *sm̥kŕ̥t > *sm̥kúrt > *sm̥kú > *sunku (at once) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF
  2. Loss of laryngeals, lengthening the preceding vowel and causing glottalization of following *w as *wH from metathesis.
    *gʷriHwéh₂ (neck) > *griHwáH > *gŕ̥HwiyaH (remodeling) > *kŕ̥HwiyaH > *kŕ̥wHi > *kumpi (neck) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
    *ḱr̥h₂nóm (horn) > *ćr̥Hnám > *ćr̥ná > *sorná > *sora (sky; top) 2.4a LH
    *néh₂s (nose) > *náHsaH > *upa-náHsaH (addition of prefix) > *upanā́sā > *pana (nose) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH
  3. Simplification of consonant clusters and gemination of intervocalic *-y-. Generally, the first consonant is deleted, except for the ones listed below. This is believed to have led to the split correspondence in Ryukyuan between B and C of tone class 2.4/2.5 words, as words containing geminates or consonant clusters belong to class B (2.4b/2.5b).
    1. *ćr > , but it rhotacized a following nasal.
      *ḱlinós (bent, inclined) > *ćrinás > *utćrínas > *ućírë > *usiro (back) 3.7 LHL
      *miḱrós (mixed) > *mićrás > *mićë́ > *misə (miso) 2.4b LH
    2. *ćš > *ćć > (also *ćš > word-initially).
      *dʰǵʰḿ̥h₂s (earth) > *ȷ́ʰžʰḿ̥Hs > *ȷ́žm̥HáH (remodeling) > *ćšm̥HáH > *ćm̥HáH > *sima (island, territory) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
      *kóḱsih₂ (joint) > *káćšiH > *kë́ćći > *kë́ći > *kəsi (back, hip) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
    3. *ćt > *ćć > .
      *h₂mērǵtóy (in purity) > *Hmārćtáy > *maććá > *maćá > *masa (in truth) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF (fossilized locative)
    4. *kr > *k, but *k...kr > *k...r.
      *gʰrebʰ- (to take, seize) > *gʰrabʰ- > *káp- > *kapu (to buy) 2.I H-
      *kánkris (crab) > *kánkriš > *kánri > *kani (crab) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
      *kʷekʷlóm (wheel) > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kúrë > *kuru-ma (car, wheel) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
    5. *kš > *kk > *k, except word-initially.
      *dyutkós (celestial, heavenly) > *dyukšás > *dyukšyás (remodeling) > *tyukkyë́ > *tukyú > *tukuy (moon) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    6. *mr > *m or *nr > *r, probably a dialectal feature, but the regular reflex seems to be *nr > *r causing a pitch rise on the following vowel and creating various accent classes.
      *dʰuh₂mós (smoke) > *dʰuHmás > *dúHmriH > *tū́mri > *tiri (dust) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
      *morwís (ant) > *marwíš > *wřámriH (remodeling) > *řámriH (irregular change) > *ámrī > *ami, *ari (ant) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
    7. *ntr > *nr > *n or *r.
      *h₁yenh₂tēr (husband's brother's wife) > *HyáHtā > *HyāntríH > *yanrī́ > *yari (husband's brother's wife) 2.x
      *kánkris (crab) > *kánkriš > *kánri > *kani (crab) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
      *méntrom (incantation) > *mántram > *mántriH (remodeling) > *mánri > *mani (incantation) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
    8. *pr > *p.
      *pro- (forward, toward) > *pra- > *pra > *pa (topic marker) 1.3 L
    9. *sk, *šk > *ss, *šš > *s, .
      *Hwr̥ksḱéti (to tear) > *Hwr̥škʲáti > *Hwr̥ššáti > *worai (to break) 2.II L-
    10. *tr > *r in all positions except word-initially, where it becomes *t. Note that dialectal reflexes also give > *s or in one known case, *y.
      *drewníh₂ (trough) > *drawníH > *trawní > *tani (valley) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
      *ḱwitrós (white) > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (white) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
      *temHésrih₂ (darkness) > *tamHásriH > *tramásiH > *yamë́sī > *yamúri > *yamui (darkness) 3.7 LHL > 2.3 LL
      *úd + *tréseti (to fear) > *utˢtrásati > *ućë́sati > *əsərai (to fear) 3.II L-
    11. *ts > *t. This occurred before > *c (pronounced *ts).
      *wetsós (yearling) > *watsás > *watë́ > *wətə (young (of an animal)) 2.4 LH
      *údsos (spring) > *útsas > *útsiyas (remodeling) > *utìya > *urì > *wi (well) 1.3 L
  4. becomes *c.
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *cimë́ > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  5. Rhotacization of *s and as *r, except if there is a sequence of two such consonants.
    *dʰréh₂ǵseh₂ (grape, vine) > *dʰráHȷ́žʰaH > *dráHsaH (irregular change) > *të́sa > *të́ra > *tura (vine) 2.2 HL
    *pl̥sós (rock, mountainslope) > *pr̥šás > *pr̥rá > *pira (slope) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH (irregular accent?)
    *swésōr (sister) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (younger brother, younger sister) 2.4a LH
  6. Rhotacization of unaccented *t as *r, except word-initially or after *k, *t, or *n̥.
    *teptós (warm) > *taptás > *ātaptás (addition of prefix) > *atata (warm) 3.5 LLH > 3.4 LLL
    *h₂entikós (near) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *n̥tiká > *tika (near) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *nédih₂ (roar) > *nádiH > *nári > *nai (sound) 1.1 H(H)
  7. *kš > *kus word-initially.
    *dʰgʷʰiyéti (to decline, perish) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay (remodeling) > *kusayári > *kusari (to rot) 3.II L-

Early Proto-Japonic to Middle Proto-Japonic (700 BCE to 300 BCE)

[edit]
  1. *ay > *i when word-initial or following *sw (also when following *t if unaccented), otherwise *a. *aw > *a, which causes class 2.4 and 2.5 nouns to have class B.
    *deywós (god) > *daywás > *taywá > *tiyá > *ti (spirit) 1.3 L
    *drewníh₂ (trough) > *drawníH > *tani (valley) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *kowḱós (cover) > *kawćás > *kasa 2.4b LH
    *swóydos (sweat) > *swáydas > *āswáydas (addition of prefix) > *aswíra > *asya (sweat) 2.5b LF
  2. Arisaka's law (spreading of remaining to adjacent vowels except *i). *n̥ and *r̥ = *ën and *ër spread to *u only.
    *bʰréh₂tēr (brother) > *bʰráHtā > *braHtā́ > *patë́ > *pëtë́ > *ətə (younger brother) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL (irregular accent?)
    *pl̥th₂ús (broad, wide) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rë́ > *pirə (broad, wide) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *téntus (thread) > *tántuš > *tn̥túš (remodeling) > *itə (thread) 2.4a LH
  3. Syllabic consonants vocalize or receive an epenthetic high vowel (which feeds into Arisaka's law if *u) except for *n̥ word-initially. *r̥t > *r only after *p. The sequence *rn (likely a retroflex nasal) that results from it is secondary; old *rn having become *n during the simplification.
    *kʷr̥tóm (action, deed, work) > *kr̥tám > *kətə (action, deed, work) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *ḱr̥h₂nóm (horn) > *ćr̥Hnám > *curná > *sora (sky; top) 2.4a LH
    *pl̥th₂ús (broad, wide) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rë́ > *pirə (broad, wide) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  4. *wH (from *Hw and *wH) > *mp.
    *gʷriHwéh₂ (neck) > *griHwáH > *gŕ̥HwiyaH (remodeling) > *kúwHiyā > *kúmpiya > *kumpi (neck) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
  5. Long vowels shorten, except for , which becomes a short close central vowel (written as ) that becomes *i or *u, probably the earliest difference between Japanese and Ryukyuan.
    *tuh₂yós (strong) > *tuHyás > *tūyë́ > *tiyo, *tuyo (strong) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  6. is raised to u, near *m, *n, and sometimes *r.
    *dʰéreti (to hold) > *dʰárati > *túrari > *tuàri > *toru (to hold) 2.II L-
    *ǵn̥néh₃ti (to know) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *cinúri > *sinúri > *siri (to know) 2.I H- (irregular accent)
    *kʷekʷlóm (wheel) > *kʲakrám > *kúru > *kuru-ma (car, wheel) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
    *skinédti (to cut) > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kiri (to cut) 2.II L-
  7. Remaining becomes .
  8. *c becomes *s.
    *ḱwitrós (white) > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (white) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *ǵʰimós (frost, winter) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simo (frost) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  9. *o is raised to *u.
    *dʰwórom (door) > *dʰwā́ram > *tóra > *túra > *to (door) 1.1 H(H)
    *mḗms (flesh, meat) > *mā́ms > *móri > *múri > *mui (flesh, meat) 1.1 H(H)
  10. *u lowers to *o (different from the old *o) near *m and *n, except when *y precedes it.
    *kr̥snós (black) > *kr̥šnás > *kurnó > *kuro (black) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *kʷíh₂ontm̥ (how much) > *kʲíHantam > *kʲyántam > *í-kyunta (remodeling) > *ikura (how much) 3.3 HLL
    *ḱr̥h₂nóm (horn) > *ćr̥Hnám > *corná > *sora (sky; top) 2.4a LH
    *péyh₂wō (fat (noun)) > *píHwā > *pyuntás (remodeling) > *puntó > *puto (fat (adjective)) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  11. *w is lost after consonants. *iwa > *iya and following that, word-final *iya > *i.
    *deywós (god) > *daywás > *tiwá > *tiyá > *ti (spirit) 1.3 L
    *ḱwitrós (white) > *ćwitrás > *cwirá > *sira (white) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *néwyos (new) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *nawíya > *nawí > *nipi (new) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
    *tewh₂yós (strong) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *tayá > *taya (strength) 2.3/2.4a LL/LH
  12. *i preceding *n dialectally lowers into *e, in part due to the Japanese reflex retaining the vowel.
    *h₂úsmn̥ (ear) > *Húšma > *HušmnìH (dual form) > *(u)mini > *memi (ear) 2.3 LL (irregular assimilation)
    *h₃eletnís (elbow) > *Haratníš > *upa-řatníš (addition of prefix) > *upantì > *penti (elbow) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL
    *tr̥nóm (thorn) > *tr̥nám > *tirná > *era (thorn) 2.5 LF (irregular accent)
  13. *rn becomes *r
    *kr̥snós (black) > *kr̥šnás > *kurnó > *kuro (black) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *ḱr̥h₂nóm (horn) > *ćr̥Hnám > *corná > *sora (sky; top) 2.4a LH
  14. *aya contracts to *a and shifts the accent to the right, unless it is syllable-final and is accented on the suffix, where it is retained.
    *dʰgʷʰiyéti (to decline, perish) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay > *kusayári > *kusari (to rot) 3.II L-
    *sph₁eh₁yós (prosperous) > *spʰaHyás > *paya (early, quick) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *tewh₂yós (strong) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *taya (strength) 2.3/2.4a LL/LH
  15. *awa > *uwa.
    *h₂éwo (away, off) > *Háwa > *áwa > *úwa > *wo (accusative marker; away, off) 1.3 L
  16. Fortition of *w as *p after *a or *i with some exceptions involving *i, which lowers to *e.
    *néwyos (new) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *napí > *nipi (new) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
  17. The sequence *i...ə́ becomes *é...e with a leftward shift in accent.
    *nidréh₂ (sleep) > *nidráH > *nirə́ > *nére > *ne (sleep) 1.1 H(H)
    *wiHrós (man) > *wiHrás > *wirə́ > *wére > *we (man) 1.x
  18. Syllable-final *ya after consonants becomes *e (> Old Japanese e2).
    *dʰoHnéh₂ (grain) > *dʰaHnáH > *dʰaHnyáH > *tanyá > *tane (seed) 2.4b LH
  19. Accented word-final *nt becomes *t in some cases, probably dialectal.
    *péyh₂wō (fat (noun)) > *píHwā > *pyuntás > *puto (fat (adjective)) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *skendʰós (shoulder) > *skandʰás > *kandás > *kata (shoulder) 2.4b LH
  20. In numerous cases, a word-final high pitch following a nasal consonant becomes low, causing the creation of accent classes 2.3 and 3.4.
  21. Adjectives with word-final high pitch also undergo the same process, regardless of the environment, also affecting nouns derived from it.

Middle Proto-Japonic to Late Proto-Japonic (300 BCE to 300 CE)

[edit]
  1. *n̥m > *n̥w, in some cases changing to *y conditioned by accent.
    *dméh₂ (at home) > *dmáH > *ń̥wa > *ya (house) 1.3 L
    *n̥smé- (we) > *n̥smá- > *n̥wá > *wa (we) 1.1/1.2 H(H)/H(L)
  2. *n̥ vocalizes into a high vowel.
    *dméh₂ (at home) > *dmáH > *ń̥wa > *íwa > *ya (house) 1.3 L
    *h₁entér (inside, within) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári > *n̥túri > *utúri > *utui (inside, within) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH
  3. Lenition of unaccented *p as *w or *w̃.
    *nepōtkós (grandson) > *napātkás > *nupaká > *nuw̃ãká > *mmanka (grandchild) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH
  4. *p is lost (probably via lenition first) if the following vowel is unaccented and is followed by a syllable containing *p or *t.
    *pedóm (footprint) > *padám > *ato (footprint) 2.4a LH
    *pēntéh₂ (heel) > *pāntáH > *anto (heel) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
    *pn̥kʷtós (fifth) > *pn̥ktás > *pitú > *witú > *etu (five) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH
    *pro- + *dédeh₃ti (to give) > *pradádaHti > *atárari > *atapai (to give) 3.I H-
  5. Assimilation of non-initial *n...r as *r...r.
    *ǵn̥néh₃ti (to know) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *siróri > *siri (to know) 2.I H-
    *skinédti (to cut) > *skʲinátˢti > *kiróri > *kiri (to cut) 2.II L-
  6. Loss of unaccented *r in labial environments, otherwise an epenthetic *p is inserted. This creates a new set of diphthongs.
    *pro- + *dédeh₃ti (to give) > *pradádaHti > *atárari > *atapai (to give) 3.I H-
    *sélos (marsh) > *sáras > *sára > *sapa (marsh) 2.1/2.2 HH/HL
  7. Loss of *a before a sequence *wi, with a later addition of epenthetic *i alongside a high pitch.
    *néwyos (new) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *napí > *mipi, *nipi (new) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
  8. Loss of unaccented initial *i or *u, in some cases they are retained with a high pitch.
    *h₃eletnís (elbow) > *Haratníš > *upa-řatníš > *penti (elbow) 2.2 HL
    *Hikʷnés (of the liver) > *Hiknás > *ikinó > *kinó > *kimo (liver) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  9. *n > *m near single *o.
    *ḱinós (lying down) > *ćiHnás > *ćíHnas > *síno > *simo (down) 2.2 HL
    *Hikʷnés (of the liver) > *Hiknás > *ikinó > *kinó > *kimo (liver) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
  10. *wi > dialectal *i (probably via earlier *yi) or *yu.
    *h₁wi- (away) + *gʷeh₂- (to go, step) > *Hwi-gaH- > *wík- > *iku, *yuku (to go) 2.I H-
    *pn̥kʷtós (fifth) > *pn̥ktás > *witú > *etu (five) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH
  11. Syncope of unaccented syllables containing *m, *n, *r, and *y, which may cause a 1.2 or 2.5 accent pattern via nasalization.
    *dʰwórom (door) > *dʰwā́ram > *túra > *to (door) 1.1 H(H)
    *h₁nómn̥ (name) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *nã > *na (name) 1.2 H(L)
    *nepōtkós (grandson) > *napātkás > *nuw̃ãká > *nw̃ãká > *mmanka (grandchild) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH
    *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (shade, shadow) > *skʲaHyáH > *kayiká > *kãnkãi > *kankai (shade, shadow) 2.5a LF
    *swóydos (sweat) > *swáydas > *āswáydas > *asíra > *asyã > *asya (sweat) 2.5b LF
  12. *w̃ > *m and denasalization of vowels (but may cause nasal spreading).
    *nepōtkós (grandson) > *napātkás > *nw̃ãká > *mmanka (grandchild) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH
    *h₁nómn̥ (name) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *nã > *na (name) 1.2 H(L)
    *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (shade, shadow) > *skʲaHyáH > *kayiká > *kãnkai > *kankai (shade, shadow) 2.5b LF