User:Kwékwlos/Sound changes from Indo-European to Japonic
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This page will show many intricate details on how Proto-Indo-European evolved into Proto-Japonic. Please note that all of this is very speculative, so be warned.
Proto-Indo-European to Early Proto-Indo-Iranian (3000 BCE to 2000 BCE)
[edit]- Fronting of palatovelar consonants into affricates (*ḱ > *ć, *ǵ > *ȷ́, *ǵʰ > *ȷ́ʰ).
- *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrós > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néh₃ti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H- (irregular accent)
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimós > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simú > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- Labiovelar consonants become plain velar consonants (*kʷ > *k, *gʷ > *g, *gʷʰ > *gʰ).
- *gʷem- (“to come, step”) > *gém- > *gʲam- > *gḿ̥- > *kún- > *kuru (“to come”) 2.I H-
- *gʷʰénti (“to kill”) > *gʰénti > *gʲʰánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (“to kill”) 3.I H-
- *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *keklóm > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
- Change of *l and *l̥ to *r and *r̥.
- Palatalization of s before *r/r̥ (also includes those from *l/*l̥), *u/*w, *k, and *i/*y as *š.
- *usmé- (“you”) > *ušmé- > *ušmá- > *uššá- (irregular change) > *ura 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
- *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnós > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥nú > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *h₂úsmn̥ (“ear”) > *h₂úšmn̥ > *Húšma > *HušmnìH (dual form) > *(u)mini > *memi (“ear”) 2.3 LL (irregular assimilation)
- *néwistHos (“newest”) > *néwištHos > *náwištʰas > *nawíštas > *napíra > *mapya (“before, front”) 2.5 LF (irregular labial assimilation)
- Bartholomae's law (voicing assimilation after aspirated consonants)
- *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santá-m- > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-
- Palatalization of velars before *e, *ē, or *i (*k > *kʲ, *g > *gʲ, *gʷʰ > *gʲʰ)
- *gʷem- (“to come, step”) > *gém- > *gʲam- > *gḿ̥- > *kún- > *kuru (“to come”) 2.I H-
- *gʷʰénti (“to kill”) > *gʰénti > *gʲʰánti > *kə́nt-as- > *kərə-su (“to kill”) 3.I H-
- *gʷʰéntōr (“one which strikes”) > *gʲʰéntōr > *gʲʰántā > *gń̥tras (remodeling) > *kń̥su > *kensu (“wound”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Brugmann's law (open-syllabic *o > *ō)
- *h₂ before a vowel and after a voiceless stop creates a voiceless aspirated consonant (*ph₂ > pʰ, *th₂ > *tʰ, *kh₂ > *kʰ)
- Merger of the three laryngeals *h₁, *h₂, *h₃ (after vowel coloring) as *H.
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥néHti > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H- (irregular accent)
- *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hésti > *Hásti > *ari (“to be”) 2.II L- (accent neutralization due to clause position)
- *h₂énh₂ts (“duck”) > *HānHtíš > *Hāntíš > *anti (“duck”) 2.x
- A laryngeal between two consonants vocalizes as *i, or disappears.
- *dʰugh₂tḗr (“daughter”) > *dʰugʲitā́ > *duyitā́ (irregular change) > *titə́ > *itə (“daughter, girl”) 2.x
- *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *santá-m- > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-
- Merger of *e, *o as *a, *ē and *ō as *ā.
- *h₁ésti (“to be”) > *Hásti > *ari (“to be”) 2.II L- (accent neutralization due to clause position)
- *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *kʲakrám > *kʲákram (accent shift) > *kúkram (irregular change) > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
- *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF
- *wŕ̥sēn (“male, man”) > *wŕ̥šā > *ŕ̥šā (irregular change) > *ŕ̥ra > *úra > *wo (“male, man”) 1.3 L
Early Proto-Indo-Iranian to Proto-Japonic-Nuristani (2000 BCE to 1500 BCE)
[edit]- Aspirated consonants lose their aspiration (*bʰ > *b, *dʰ > *d, *gʰ > *g, *gʲʰ > *gʲ, *ȷ́ʰ > *ȷ́, *pʰ > *p, *tʰ > *t, *kʰ > *k).
- *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *por-ì > *poi (“fire”) 1.3 L
- *dʰéreti (“to hold”) > *dʰárati > *túrari > *tuàr- > *toru (“to hold”) 2.II L-
- *gʰo (“emphatic particle”) > *gʰa > *ga > *-nV-ka (with preposed genitive) > *-nka (“genitive particle”)
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *simú > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, wide”) > *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥rú > *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- Initial *r or *Hr becomes *ř.
- Loss of the laryngeal *H between two vowels, probably conditioned by accent. If a sequence of two distinct vowels results, a glide is inserted, otherwise they merge.
- *bʰéh₂os (“light”) > *bʰáHas > *báHas > *bā́s > *por-ì > *poi (“fire”) 1.3 L
- *ḱr̥h₂wíh₂ (“head”) > *ćr̥HwíH > *ćruwíH > *suwí > *suwe (“top”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
- *n̥dʰí + *h₁éyti (“to go”) > *n̥dʰiHáyti > *n̥dáyti (glide dissimilation) > *n̥tári > *intai (“to go out”) 2.II L-
- *pr̥h₂wíyos (“first”) > *pr̥Hwíyas > *pruwíyas > *puwì > *upi (“first”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH
- Reduction of syllable-initial *an as *n̥ followed by shortening of syllable-initial *ān as *an.
- *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *n̥túri > *utui (“inside, within”) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH
- *h₂entikós (“near”) > *Hantikás > *Hn̥tikás > *n̥tiká > *tika (“near”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *h₃éngʷn̥ (“fat”) + *bʰr̥tós (“borne”) > *Hāngnabʰr̥tám (irregular long vowel) > *Hangnabr̥tám > *annapr̥rá > *anpura (“fat”) 3.5b LLH
Proto-Japonic-Nuristani to Pre-Proto-Japonic (1500 BCE to 1000 BCE)
[edit]- The syllabic consonants *m̥, *n̥, *r̥ become *am, *un, *ur syllable-finally; else they are retained.
- *gʷíh₃wontm̥ (“living”) > *gʲíHwantm̥ > *gʲiHwántam > *kiwúnta > *kiyora (“beautiful, clear”) 3.5b/3.6b LLH/LHH
- *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnā́mun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)
- *sm̥kŕ̥t (“at once”) > *sm̥kŕ̥t > *sm̥kúrt > *sunku (“at once”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF
- Single *ā becomes *o, except when unaccented, is followed by *u, or in word-final position, where it becomes *a instead.
- *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *dwóram > *twóra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)
- *ǵónu (“knee”) > *ȷ́ā́nu > *upa-ȷ́ā́nu (addition of prefix) > *upaȷ́ánu > *upasánu > *pisa, *pinsa (“knee”) 4.11 LLHL > 2.1 HH
- *h₁éh₁tmō (“soul, spirit”) > *HáHtmā > *tmā́ > *tmá > *tama (“soul, spirit”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnámun > *námu > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)
- *mḗms (“flesh, meat”) > *mā́ms > *móms-i > *múri > *mui (“flesh, meat”) 1.1 H(H)
- *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swasá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a/2.5a LH/LF
- *wa becomes *wu when not word-initial or word-final (although it may be a later development).
- Secondary palatovelars lose their palatalization (*kʲ > *k, *gʲ > *g).
- Simplification of *tˢt and *dᶻd as *tt, *dd
- *bʰidtós (“split”) > *bʰitˢtás > *bittás > *pittá > *ita (“board, plank”) 2.4b LH
- *semdʰh₁tós (“put together”) > *samdʰHtás > *samdᶻdʰás > *samddás > *santá-m- > *santamu (“to decide, establish, fix”) 3.II L-
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *skinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Loss of *s before a voiceless stop (*sp > *p, *st > *t, *sk > *k)
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinétˢti > *skʲinátˢti > *kinátti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kaHikáH > *kayiká > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5a LF
- *sph₁eh₁yós (“prosperous”) > *spʰaHyás > *paHyás > *payyá > *paya (“early, quick”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *stísteh₂ti (“to stand”) > *stíštaHti > *státaHti (remodeling) > *tátaHti > *tat- > *tatu (“to stand”) 2.II L- (irregular accent)
- Voiced consonants are devoiced (*b > *p, *d > *t, *g > *k, *ȷ́ > *ć).
- *bʰidtós (“split”) > *bʰitˢtás > *pittás > *ita (“board, plank”) 2.4b LH
- *dʰuh₂mós (“smoke”) > *dʰuHmás > *dúHmriH (remodeling) > *túHmriH > *tū́mri > *tiri (“dust”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
- *gʰo (“emphatic particle”) > *gʰa > *ga > *ka > *-nV-ka (with preposed genitive) > *-nka (“genitive particle”)
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ȷ́imás > *ćimás > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- Loss of *ř (could be a later development).
- *kš becomes *ć word-initially or *ćć word-medially before high vowels.
- Phonemic split of *a into *a and *ë under complex, unclear conditions.
- *ǵʰimós (“frost, winter”) > *ȷ́ʰimás > *ćimë́s > *simú > *simo (“frost”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *h₁entér (“inside, within”) > *Hantár > *Hn̥tári (remodeling) > *Hn̥të́ri > *n̥túri > *utui (“inside, within”) 3.7 LHL > 2.1 HH
- *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnás > *kr̥šnë́s > *kr̥nú > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *kʷr̥tóm (“action, deed, work”) > *kr̥tám > *kr̥të́m > *kr̥tə́ > *kətə (“action, deed, work”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
Pre-Proto-Japonic to Early Proto-Japonic (1000 BCE to 700 BCE)
[edit]- Loss of final consonants.
- Loss of laryngeals, lengthening the preceding vowel and causing glottalization of following *w as *wH from metathesis.
- Simplification of consonant clusters and gemination of intervocalic *-y-. Generally, the first consonant is deleted, except for the ones listed below. This is believed to have led to the split correspondence in Ryukyuan between B and C of tone class 2.4/2.5 words, as words containing geminates or consonant clusters belong to class B (2.4b/2.5b).
- *ćr > *ć, but it rhotacized a following nasal.
- *ćš > *ćć > *ć (also *ćš > *ć word-initially).
- *dʰǵʰḿ̥h₂s (“earth”) > *ȷ́ʰžʰḿ̥Hs > *ȷ́žm̥HáH (remodeling) > *ćšm̥HáH > *ćm̥HáH > *sima (“island, territory”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *kóḱsih₂ (“joint”) > *káćšiH > *kë́ćći > *kë́ći > *kəsi (“back, hip”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
- *ćt > *ćć > *ć.
- *h₂mērǵtóy (“in purity”) > *Hmārćtáy > *maććá > *maćá > *masa (“in truth”) 2.4/2.5 LH/LF (fossilized locative)
- *kr > *k, but *k...kr > *k...r.
- *kš > *kk > *k, except word-initially.
- *mr > *m or *nr > *r, probably a dialectal feature, but the regular reflex seems to be *nr > *r causing a pitch rise on the following vowel and creating various accent classes.
- *ntr > *nr > *n or *r.
- *pr > *p.
- *sk, *šk > *ss, *šš > *s, *š.
- *Hwr̥ksḱéti (“to tear”) > *Hwr̥škʲáti > *Hwr̥ššáti > *worai (“to break”) 2.II L-
- *tr > *r in all positions except word-initially, where it becomes *t. Note that dialectal reflexes also give *ć > *s or in one known case, *y.
- *drewníh₂ (“trough”) > *drawníH > *trawní > *tani (“valley”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrás > *swirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *temHésrih₂ (“darkness”) > *tamHásriH > *tramásiH > *yamë́sī > *yamúri > *yamui (“darkness”) 3.7 LHL > 2.3 LL
- *úd + *tréseti (“to fear”) > *utˢtrásati > *ućë́sati > *əsərai (“to fear”) 3.II L-
- *ts > *t. This occurred before *ć > *c (pronounced *ts).
- *ć becomes *c.
- Rhotacization of *s and *š as *r, except if there is a sequence of two such consonants.
- *dʰréh₂ǵseh₂ (“grape, vine”) > *dʰráHȷ́žʰaH > *dráHsaH (irregular change) > *të́sa > *të́ra > *tura (“vine”) 2.2 HL
- *pl̥sós (“rock, mountainslope”) > *pr̥šás > *pr̥rá > *pira (“slope”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH (irregular accent?)
- *swésōr (“sister”) > *swásā > *swasā́ (accent shift) > *swusá > *sosa (“younger brother, younger sister”) 2.4a LH
- Rhotacization of unaccented *t as *r, except word-initially or after *k, *t, or *n̥.
- *kš > *kus word-initially.
- *dʰgʷʰiyéti (“to decline, perish”) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay (remodeling) > *kusayári > *kusari (“to rot”) 3.II L-
Early Proto-Japonic to Middle Proto-Japonic (700 BCE to 300 BCE)
[edit]- *ay > *i when word-initial or following *sw (also when following *t if unaccented), otherwise *a. *aw > *a, which causes class 2.4 and 2.5 nouns to have class B.
- Arisaka's law (spreading of remaining *ë to adjacent vowels except *i). *n̥ and *r̥ = *ën and *ër spread *ë to *u only.
- Syllabic consonants vocalize or receive an epenthetic high vowel (which feeds into Arisaka's law if *u) except for *n̥ word-initially. *r̥t > *r only after *p. The sequence *rn (likely a retroflex nasal) that results from it is secondary; old *rn having become *n during the simplification.
- *wH (from *Hw and *wH) > *mp.
- *gʷriHwéh₂ (“neck”) > *griHwáH > *gŕ̥HwiyaH (remodeling) > *kúwHiyā > *kúmpiya > *kumpi (“neck”) 2.2 HL > 2.1 HH
- Long vowels shorten, except for *ū, which becomes a short close central vowel (written as *ū) that becomes *i or *u, probably the earliest difference between Japanese and Ryukyuan.
- *ë is raised to u, near *m, *n, and sometimes *r.
- *dʰéreti (“to hold”) > *dʰárati > *túrari > *tuàri > *toru (“to hold”) 2.II L-
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *cinúri > *sinúri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H- (irregular accent)
- *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) > *kʲakrám > *kúru > *kuru-ma (“car, wheel”) 2.1=1.1 HH=H
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kinúri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Remaining *ë becomes *ə.
- *c becomes *s.
- *o is raised to *u.
- *u lowers to *o (different from the old *o) near *m and *n, except when *y precedes it.
- *kr̥snós (“black”) > *kr̥šnás > *kurnó > *kuro (“black”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *kʷíh₂ontm̥ (“how much”) > *kʲíHantam > *kʲyántam > *í-kyunta (remodeling) > *ikura (“how much”) 3.3 HLL
- *ḱr̥h₂nóm (“horn”) > *ćr̥Hnám > *corná > *sora (“sky; top”) 2.4a LH
- *péyh₂wō (“fat (noun)”) > *píHwā > *pyuntás (remodeling) > *puntó > *puto (“fat (adjective)”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *w is lost after consonants. *iwa > *iya and following that, word-final *iya > *i.
- *deywós (“god”) > *daywás > *tiwá > *tiyá > *ti (“spirit”) 1.3 L
- *ḱwitrós (“white”) > *ćwitrás > *cwirá > *sira (“white”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *néwyos (“new”) > *náwyas > *nawíyas > *nawíya > *nawí > *nipi (“new”) 2.4 LH > 2.1 HH
- *tewh₂yós (“strong”) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *tayá > *taya (“strength”) 2.3/2.4a LL/LH
- *i preceding *n dialectally lowers into *e, in part due to the Japanese reflex retaining the vowel.
- *h₂úsmn̥ (“ear”) > *Húšma > *HušmnìH (dual form) > *(u)mini > *memi (“ear”) 2.3 LL (irregular assimilation)
- *h₃eletnís (“elbow”) > *Haratníš > *upa-řatníš (addition of prefix) > *upantì > *penti (“elbow”) 3.4 LLL > 2.2 HL
- *tr̥nóm (“thorn”) > *tr̥nám > *tirná > *era (“thorn”) 2.5 LF (irregular accent)
- *rn becomes *r
- *aya contracts to *a and shifts the accent to the right, unless it is syllable-final and is accented on the suffix, where it is retained.
- *dʰgʷʰiyéti (“to decline, perish”) > *gžʰiyátay > *gžayátay > *kusayári > *kusari (“to rot”) 3.II L-
- *sph₁eh₁yós (“prosperous”) > *spʰaHyás > *paya (“early, quick”) 2.4 LH > 2.3 LL
- *tewh₂yós (“strong”) > *tawHyás > *tawyás > *taya (“strength”) 2.3/2.4a LL/LH
- *awa > *uwa.
- Fortition of *w as *p after *a or *i with some exceptions involving *i, which lowers to *e.
- The sequence *i...ə́ becomes *é...e with a leftward shift in accent.
- Syllable-final *ya after consonants becomes *e (> Old Japanese e2).
- Accented word-final *nt becomes *t in some cases, probably dialectal.
- In numerous cases, a word-final high pitch following a nasal consonant becomes low, causing the creation of accent classes 2.3 and 3.4.
- Adjectives with word-final high pitch also undergo the same process, regardless of the environment, also affecting nouns derived from it.
Middle Proto-Japonic to Late Proto-Japonic (300 BCE to 300 CE)
[edit]- *n̥m > *n̥w, in some cases changing to *y conditioned by accent.
- *n̥ vocalizes into a high vowel.
- Lenition of unaccented *p as *w or *w̃.
- *p is lost (probably via lenition first) if the following vowel is unaccented and is followed by a syllable containing *p or *t.
- Assimilation of non-initial *n...r as *r...r.
- *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) > *ȷ́n̥náHti > *siróri > *siri (“to know”) 2.I H-
- *skinédti (“to cut”) > *skʲinátˢti > *kiróri > *kiri (“to cut”) 2.II L-
- Loss of unaccented *r in labial environments, otherwise an epenthetic *p is inserted. This creates a new set of diphthongs.
- Loss of *a before a sequence *wi, with a later addition of epenthetic *i alongside a high pitch.
- Loss of unaccented initial *i or *u, in some cases they are retained with a high pitch.
- *n > *m near single *o.
- *wi > dialectal *i (probably via earlier *yi) or *yu.
- Syncope of unaccented syllables containing *m, *n, *r, and *y, which may cause a 1.2 or 2.5 accent pattern via nasalization.
- *dʰwórom (“door”) > *dʰwā́ram > *túra > *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H)
- *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) > *Hnā́mn̥ > *námu > *nã > *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L)
- *nepōtkós (“grandson”) > *napātkás > *nuw̃ãká > *nw̃ãká > *mmanka (“grandchild”) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH
- *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”) > *skʲaHyáH > *kayiká > *kãnkãi > *kankai (“shade, shadow”) 2.5a LF
- *swóydos (“sweat”) > *swáydas > *āswáydas > *asíra > *asyã > *asya (“sweat”) 2.5b LF
- *w̃ > *m and denasalization of vowels (but may cause nasal spreading).