Appendix:Standard Mandarin Swadesh list

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This is a Swadesh list of words in Mandarin, compared with definitions in English.

Presentation

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For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.

American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.

List

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The list includes Pinyin and IPA transcription.

EnglishMandarin
普通話普通话 (pǔtōnghuà)
edit (207)
IPA
(key)
1I (1sg) ()uɔ²¹⁴
2you (2sg) () (informal), (nín) (polite)ni²¹⁴, nin³⁵
3he, she, it (3sg) (), (), ()tʰa⁵⁵, tʰa⁵⁵, tʰa⁵⁵
4we (1pl)我們我们 (wǒmen)uɔ²¹ mən⁰
5you (2pl)你們你们 (nǐmen) (informal), (nín) (polite)ni²¹ mən⁰, nin³⁵
6they (3pl)他們他们 (tāmen)tʰa⁵⁵ mən⁰
7this (zhè, zhèi), 這個这个 (zhège, zhèige)tʂɤ⁵¹, tʂei⁵¹, tʂɤ⁵¹ kə⁰, tʂei⁵¹ kə⁰
8that (nà, nèi), 那個那个 (nàge, nèige)na⁵¹, nei⁵¹, na⁵¹ kə⁰, nei⁵¹ kə⁰
9here這裡这里 (zhèli), 這兒这儿 (zhèr) (Beijing accent)tʂɤ⁵¹ li⁰, tʂaɻ⁵¹
10there那裡那里 (nàli), 那兒那儿 (nàr)na⁵¹ li⁰, naɻ⁵¹
11who (shéi, shúi)ʂei³⁵, ʂuei³⁵
12what什麼什么 (shénme), 哪個哪个 (nǎge) (which)ʂən³⁵ mə⁰, na²¹ kə⁰
13where哪裡哪里 (nǎli), 哪兒哪儿 (nǎr) (Beijing accent)na³⁵ li⁰, naɻ²¹⁴
14when什麼時候什么时候 (shénmē shíhòu)ʂən³⁵ mə⁵⁵ ʂʐ³⁵ xou⁵¹
15how如何 (rúhé) (formal), 怎麼怎么 (zěnme) (informal), 怎樣怎样 (zěnyàng) (in what way)ʐu³⁵ xɤ³⁵, tsən²¹ mə⁰, tsən²¹ iaŋ⁵¹
16not () (is not, does not), (bié) (do not (imperative)), (méi) (does not have, did not)pu⁵¹, piɛ³⁵, mei³⁵
17all全部 (quánbù) (all of it), (zhěng) (ex. all day), 所有 (suǒyǒu) (ex. all cars), (dōu) (ex. they all see it), 一共 (yīgòng) (ex. how many in all?)tɕʰyɛn³⁵ pu⁵¹, tʂɤŋ²¹⁴, suɔ³⁵ iou²¹⁴, tou⁵⁵, i³⁵ koŋ⁵¹
18many (duō)tuɔ⁵⁵
19some一些 (yīxiē), 幾個几个 (jǐge)ji⁵³ ɕiɛ⁵⁵, tɕi²¹ kə⁰
20few (shǎo)ʂɑu²¹⁴
21other其他 (qítā), 別的别的 (biéde)tɕʰi³⁵ tʰa⁵⁵, piɛ³⁵ tə⁰
22one ()i⁵⁵
23two (èr) (not with measure words), (liǎng) (only with measure words)ɑɻ⁵¹, liɑŋ²¹⁴
24three (sān)san⁵⁵
25four ()sɿ⁵¹
26five ()u²¹⁴
27big ()ta⁵¹
28long (cháng)tʂɑŋ³⁵
29wide (kuān)kʰuan⁵⁵
30thick (hòu)xou⁵¹
31heavy (zhòng)tʂoŋ⁵¹
32small (xiǎo)ɕiɑu²¹⁴
33short (duǎn)tuan²¹⁴
34narrow (zhǎi)tʂai²¹⁴
35thin (báo)pɑu³⁵
36woman女人 (nǚrén)ny²¹ ʐən³⁵
37man (adult male)男人 (nánrén)nan³⁵ ʐən³⁵
38man (human being) (rén)ʐən³⁵
39child孩子 (háizi), 兒童儿童 (értóng), 小孩 (xiǎohái)xai³⁵ tsɿ⁰, ɑɻ³⁵ tʰoŋ³⁵, ɕiɑu²¹ xai³⁵
40wife妻子 (qīzi), 老婆 (lǎopó) (informal)tɕi⁵⁵ tsɿ⁰, lɑu²¹ pʰwɔ³⁵
41husband丈夫 (zhàngfu), 老公 (lǎogōng) (informal)tʂɑŋ⁵¹ fu⁰, lɑu²¹ koŋ⁵⁵
42mother母親母亲 (mǔqīn), 媽媽妈妈 (māma) (informal)mu²¹ tɕin⁵⁵, ma⁵⁵ ma⁰
43father父親父亲 (fùqīn) (formal), 爸爸 (bàba) (informal)fu⁵¹ tɕin⁵⁵, pa⁵¹ pa⁰
44animal動物动物 (dòngwù)toŋ⁵¹ u⁵¹
45fish ()y³⁵
46bird (niǎo)niɑu²¹⁴
47dog (gǒu)kou²¹⁴
48louse (shī)ʂʐ⁵⁵
49snake (shé)ʂɤ³⁵
50worm (chóng) (worm, insect), 蠕蟲蠕虫 (rúchóng) (generic), 蚯蚓 (qiūyǐn) (earthworm)tʂʰoŋ³⁵, ʐu³⁵ tʂʰoŋ³⁵, tɕʰiou⁵⁵ in²¹⁴
51tree (shù)ʂu⁵¹
52forest森林 (sēnlín)sən⁵⁵ lin³⁵
53stick樹枝树枝 (shùzhī) (tree branch), 枝條枝条 (zhītiáo) (formal), 枝子 (zhīzi) (informal)ʂu⁵¹ tʂʐ⁵⁵, tʂʐ⁵⁵ tʰiɑu³⁵, tʂʐ⁵⁵ tsɿ⁰
54fruit水果 (shǔiguǒ)ʂuei³⁵ kuɔ²¹⁴
55seed種子种子 (zhǒngzi)tʂoŋ²¹ tsɿ⁰
56leaf (), 葉子叶子 (yèzi)iɛ⁵¹, iɛ⁵¹ tsɿ⁰
57root (gēn)kən⁵⁵
58bark (of a tree)樹皮树皮 (shùpí)ʂu⁵¹ pʰi³⁵
59flower (huā)xua⁵⁵
60grass (cǎo)tsɑu²¹⁴
61rope (shéng), 繩子绳子 (shéngzi)ʂɤŋ³⁵, ʂɤŋ³⁵ tsɿ⁰
62skin (), 皮膚皮肤 (pífū)pʰi³⁵, pʰi³⁵ fu⁵⁵
63meat (ròu)ʐou⁵¹
64blood (xiě, xuè, xuě), 血液 (xiěyè, xuèyè, xuěyè)ɕiɛ²¹⁴, ɕyɛ⁵¹, ɕyɛ²¹⁴, ɕiɛ²¹⁴ iɛ⁵¹, ɕyɛ⁵¹ iɛ⁵¹, ɕyɛ²¹⁴ iɛ⁵¹
65bone (), 骨頭骨头 (gǔtóu)ku²¹⁴, ku²¹ tʰou³⁵
66fat (noun)脂肪 (zhīfáng)tʂʐ⁵⁵ faŋ³⁵
67egg (dàn), 鷄蛋鸡蛋 (jīdàn) (chicken egg)tan⁵¹, tɕi⁵⁵ tan⁵¹
68horn (jiǎo)tɕiɑu²¹⁴
69tail (wěi), 尾巴 (wěibā)uei²¹⁴, uei²¹ pa⁰
70feather羽毛 (yǔmáo)y²¹ mɑu³⁵
71hair頭髮头发 (tóufa)tʰou³⁵ fa⁰
72head (tóu)tʰou³⁵ fa⁰
73ear耳朵 (ěrduo)aɻ²¹ tuɔ⁰
74eye眼睛 (yǎnjing)iɛn²¹ tɕiŋ⁰
75nose (), 鼻子 (bízi)pi³⁵, pi³⁵ tsɿ⁰
76mouth (zuǐ), 嘴巴 (zuǐba)tsuei²¹⁴, tsuei²¹ pa⁰
77tooth牙齒牙齿 (yáchǐ)ia³⁵ tʂʰʐ²¹⁴
78tongue (organ) (shé), 舌頭舌头 (shétou)ʂɤ³⁵, ʂɤ³⁵ tʰou⁰
79fingernail指甲 (zhǐjia)tʂʐ³⁵ tɕia²¹
80foot (jiǎo)tɕiɑu²¹⁴
81leg (tuǐ)tʰuei²¹⁴
82knee (), 膝蓋膝盖 (xīgài)ɕi⁵⁵, ɕi⁵⁵ kai⁵¹
83hand (shǒu)ʂou²¹⁴
84wing () (literary), 翅膀 (chìbǎng)i⁵¹, tʂʐ⁵¹ paŋ²¹⁴
85belly肚子 (dùzi)tu⁵¹ tsɿ⁰
86guts腸子肠子 (chángzi)tʂaŋ³⁵ tsɿ⁰
87neck脖子 (bózi)pwɔ³⁵ tsɿ⁰
88back (bèi)pei⁵¹
89breast (xiōng) (chest (affix)), 胸部 (xiōngbù) (chest (generic)), 胸膛 (xiōngtáng) (chest (acedemic)), 乳房 (rǔfáng) (female organ)ɕyoŋ⁵⁵, ɕyoŋ⁵⁵ pu⁵¹, ɕyoŋ⁵⁵ tʰaŋ³⁵, ʐu²¹ faŋ³⁵
90heart心臟心脏 (xīnzàng)ɕin⁵⁵ tsaŋ⁵¹
91liver (gān) (affix), 肝臟肝脏 (gānzàng)kan⁵⁵, kan⁵⁵ tsaŋ⁵¹
92to drink ()xɤ⁵⁵
93to eat (chī)tʂʐ⁵⁵
94to bite (yǎo)iɑu²¹⁴
95to suck () (affix), (chuò) (sip), 吮吸 (shǔnxī) (suck)ɕi⁵⁵, tʂuo⁵¹, ʂuən²¹ ɕi⁵⁵
96to spit () (generic), 吐口水 (tǔ kǒushuǐ) (lit. spit saliva, informal), 吐痰 (tǔtán) (lit. spit phlegm, formal)tʰu²¹⁴, tʰu²¹ kʰou³⁵ ʂuei²¹⁴, tʰu²¹ tʰan³⁵
97to vomit (ǒu) (affix), () (informal), 嘔吐呕吐 (ǒutù) (formal)ou²¹⁴, tʰu⁵¹, ou²¹ tʰu⁵¹
98to blow (chuī)tʂʰuei⁵⁵
99to breathe呼吸 (hūxī)xu⁵⁵ ɕi⁵⁵
100to laugh (xiào)ɕiau⁵¹
101to see (kàn)kʰan⁵¹
102to hear (tīng)tʰiŋ⁵⁵
103to know知道 (zhīdào), 曉得晓得 (xiǎode), 認識认识 (rènshi) (to recognise)tʂʐ⁵⁵ tau⁵¹, ɕiɑu²¹ tə⁰, ʐən⁵¹ ʂʐ⁰
104to think (xiǎng)ɕiɑŋ²¹⁴
105to smell (xiù), (wén)ɕiou⁵¹, uen³⁵
106to fear ()pʰa⁵¹
107to sleep (shuì), 睡覺睡觉 (shuìjiào)ʂuei⁵¹, ʂuei⁵¹ tɕiɑu⁵¹
108to live (huó)xuɔ³⁵
109to die ()sɿ²¹⁴
110to kill (shā)ʂa⁵⁵
111to fight吵架 (chǎojià) (argue), 打架 (dǎjià) (fists), 打仗 (dǎzhàng) (war)tʂɑu²¹ tɕia⁵¹, ta²¹ tɕia⁵¹, ta²¹ tʂɑŋ⁵¹
112to hunt打獵打猎 (dǎliè)ta²¹ liɛ⁵¹
113to hit ()ta²¹
114to cut () (cut in two), (qiē) (slice), (jiǎn) (scissors)kɤ⁵⁵, tɕiɛ⁵⁵, tɕiɛn²¹⁴
115to split劈開劈开 (pīkāi) (transitive, split open), 裂開裂开 (lièkāi) (intransitive, split open), 分開分开 (fēnkāi) (split up)pʰi⁵⁵ kʰai⁵⁵, liɛ⁵¹ kʰai⁵⁵, fən⁵⁵ kʰai⁵⁵
116to stab ()tsɿ⁵¹
117to scratch (sāo), (zhuā)sɑu⁵⁵, tʂua⁵⁵
118to dig (), (jué)ua⁵⁵, tɕyɛ³⁵
119to swim游泳 (yóuyǒng)iou³⁵ yoŋ²¹⁴
120to fly (fēi)fei⁵⁵
121to walk (zǒu) (generic), 走路 (zǒulù) (walk on foot (informal)), 步行 (bùxíng) (go on foot (formal))tsou²¹⁴, tsou²¹ lu⁵¹, pu⁵¹ ɕiŋ³⁵
122to come (lái)lai³⁵
123to lie (as in a bed) (tǎng)tʰɑŋ²¹⁴
124to sit (zuò)tsuɔ⁵¹
125to stand (zhàn)tʂan⁵¹
126to turn (intransitive) (zhuǎn) (change direction)tʂuan²¹⁴
127to fall落下 (luòxià) (drop), 掉下 (diàoxià) (drop)luɔ⁵¹ ɕia⁵¹, tiɑu⁵¹ ɕia⁵¹
128to give (gěi)kei²¹⁴
129to hold (), ()uɔ⁵³, na³⁵
130to squeeze ()tɕi²¹⁴
131to rub (róu) (massage, knead)ʐou³⁵
132to wash ()ɕi²¹⁴
133to wipe ()tsʰa⁵⁵
134to pull ()la⁵⁵
135to push (tuī)tʰuei⁵⁵
136to throw (rēng), (diū)ʐɤŋ⁵⁵, tiou⁵⁵
137to tie (bǎng)paŋ²¹³
138to sew (féng)fɤŋ³⁵
139to count (shǔ), (diǎn)ʂu²¹⁴, tiɛn²¹⁴
140to say (shuō), (jiǎng)ʂuɔ⁵⁵, tɕiɑŋ²¹⁴
141to sing (chàng)tʂʰɑŋ⁵¹
142to play (wán)uan³⁵
143to float ()fu³⁵
144to flow (liú)liou³⁵
145to freeze結冰结冰 (jiébīng), 凍結冻结 (dòngjié)tɕiɛ³⁵ piŋ⁵⁵, toŋ⁵¹ tɕiɛ³⁵
146to swell膨脹膨胀 (péngzhàng)pʰɤŋ tʂɑŋ⁵¹
147sun太陽太阳 (tàiyang)tʰai⁵¹ iaŋ⁰
148moon月亮 (yuèliang)yɛ⁵¹ liɑŋ⁰
149star (xīng), 恆星恒星 (héngxīng) (scientific (fixed star))ɕiŋ⁵⁵, xɤŋ³⁵ ɕiŋ⁵⁵
150water (shuǐ)ʂuei²¹⁴
151rain ()y²¹⁴
152river ()xɤ³⁵
153lake ()xu³⁵
154sea (hǎi)xai²¹⁴
155salt (yán)iɛn³⁵
156stone (shí) (affix), 石頭石头 (shítou)ʂʐ³⁵, ʂʐ³⁵ tʰou⁰
157sand (shā)ʂa⁵⁵
158dust塵土尘土 (chéntǔ)tʂən³⁵ tʰu²¹⁴
159earth土壤 (tǔyǎng)tʰu³⁵ ʐɑŋ²¹⁴
160cloud (yún)yn³⁵
161fog ()u⁵¹
162sky (tiān)tʰiɛn⁵⁵
163wind (fēng)fɤŋ⁵⁵
164snow (xuě)ɕyɛ²¹⁴
165ice (bīng)piŋ⁵⁵
166smoke (yān)iɛn⁵⁵
167fire (huǒ)xuɔ²¹⁴
168ash (huī) (ashes or dust), 灰燼灰烬 (huījìn)xuei⁵⁵, xuei⁵⁵ tɕin⁵¹
169to burn (shāo)ʂɑu⁵⁵
170road ()lu⁵¹
171mountain (shān)ʂan⁵⁵
172red (hóng)xoŋ³⁵
173green绿 ()ly⁵¹
174yellow (huáng)xuaŋ³⁵
175white (bái)pai³⁵
176black (hēi)xei⁵⁵
177night夜晚 (yèwǎn)iɛ⁵¹ uan²¹⁴
178day白天 (báitiān)pai³⁵ tʰiɛn⁵⁵
179year (nián)niɛn³⁵
180warm溫暖温暖 (wēnnuǎn)uən⁵⁵ nuan²¹⁴
181cold (lěng)lɤŋ²¹⁴
182full滿 (mǎn)man²¹⁴
183new (xīn)ɕin⁵⁵
184old (lǎo) (not young), (jiù) (not new)lɑu²¹⁴, tɕiou⁵¹
185good (hǎo)xɑu²¹⁴
186bad (huài)xuai⁵¹
187rotten (làn)lan⁵¹
188dirty (zāng)tsɑŋ⁵⁵
189straight (zhí)tʂʐ³⁵
190round (yuán)yɛn³⁵
191sharp (as a knife) (jiān) (prefix), () (prefix), 鋒利锋利 (fēnglì), 銳利锐利 (ruìlì)tɕiɛn⁵⁵, li⁵¹, fɤŋ⁵⁵ li⁵¹, ʐuei⁵¹ li⁵¹
192dull (as a knife) (dùn)tuən⁵¹
193smooth光滑 (guānghuá)kuɑŋ⁵⁵ xua³⁵
194wet湿 (shī)ʂʐ⁵⁵
195dry (gān)kan⁵⁵
196correct (duì) (informal), 正確正确 (zhèngquè) (formal)tuei⁵¹, tʂɤŋ⁵¹ tɕʰyɛ⁵¹
197near (jìn)tɕin⁵¹
198far (yuǎn)yɛn²¹⁴
199right (yòu)iou⁵¹
200left (zuǒ)tsuɔ²¹⁴
201at (zài)tsai⁵¹
202in…… …… (zài… lǐ)tsai⁵¹ li²¹⁴
203with (gēn)kən⁵⁵
204and ()xɤ³⁵
205if如果 (rúguǒ)ʐu³⁵ kuɔ²¹⁴
206because因爲因为 (yīnwèi)in⁵⁵ uei⁵¹
207name (míng) (affix), 名字 (míngzi) (generic)miŋ³⁵, miŋ³⁵ tsɿ⁰

Sources

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See also

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Swadesh lists
Individual languages
Language families, family branches, and geographic groupings
Constructed languages
Reconstructed proto-languages
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