Appendix:Proto-Atlantic-Congo reconstructions

Proto-Western Nigritic reconstructions from Mukarovsky (1976) are given below. Mukarovsky's Proto-Western Nigritic is roughly equivalent to Proto-Atlantic-Congo (or Proto-Niger-Congo but excluding Kordofanian, Ijaw, and Dogon).

Mukarovsky (1976)

No.	English gloss	Proto-Western Nigritic
1	oil palm	*-bá-
2	to be	*ba
3	put away	*ba-
4	they (human beings)	*ba, *bi-
5	be bitter	*bab-
6	door	*-bado- (*-buda-, *-bhula)
7	hoe	*-bag-
8	jaw	*-baga- (*-banga)
9	build	*bák-
10	marry, take or become husband	*bál-
11	kind of palm	*-bále
12	twin, two	*-bàli
13	carry on back (a child)	*bamb- (*bhamb-?)
14	wing	*-bámbàm-
15	be flat	*bat- (*pat-)
16	split, tear	*bat- (*pat-)
17	rat	*-béte (*-bénte)
18	bad	*-bí-
19	seed	*-bi (*-bii)
20	bear, give birth to	*bi-
20a	child	*-bí
21	war	*-bi
22	kind of bird of prey	*-bibi-
23	hide, take cover	*bik-
24	become cooked, ripe	*bíl- (*bíd-)
25	boil up, be hot	*bil- (*buil-)
26	call, name	*bíl-
27	tell	*bil-
28	female breast; milk	*-bíl- (*-bíd-)
29	oil palm; frond or nut of oil palm	*-bíl- (*-bílà)
30	body	*-bili (*-buili)
31	round	*bilu-
32	excrements	*-bín-
33	be soft	*bòb-
34	dumb	*-bobo (*-bui-)
35	be rotten	*bòd-
36	part of the head	*bomb- (*-bomp-)
37	bind	*bop-
38	wear (clothes)	*bu-
39	baobab	*-bu-
40	arm	*-buak-
41	shoulder	*-buaka- (*-bueka-)
42	get lost, be lacking	*búd-
43	kill	*bud-
44	rain, rain cloud	*-buda
45	goat	*-búdi (*-búadi)
46	stone	*-búi
47	relative	*-buk-
48	hit	*bul-
49	speak; tell	*bul-
50	be abundant, numerous	*bul-
51	hair on body	*-buli
52	harvest	*bun-
53	mosquito	*-búne
54	waterhole, river	*-bung-
55	worm	*-bunk-
56	beget, sow	*but-
57	break, smash	*bu- (*bud-)
58	bow down, crouch	*bu- (*but-)
601	give birth, beget	*bad-
602	knife	*-bak-
603	rat	*-beb-
604	dislike, hate	*beng-
605	announce, tell	*bik-
606	be lazy	*bil-
59	father (grandfather)	*-bhàbhá
60	rib	*-bhad-
61	scar	*-bhal-
62	to shine, light	*bhal-
63	open place	*-bhal-
64	side	*-bhan-
65	shine brightly	*bhang-
66	spot, speck	*-bhat-
67	thou, you (sing.)	*-bhi-
68	dirt	*-bhin-
69	be wet	*bho- (*bhom-)
70	dog	*-bhúa-
71	fear	*bhug-
72	create, mould	*bhum- (*bhumbh-)
73	brain	*-bhunko
74	penis	*-bhun- (*-bhunt-)
607	stable	*-bhag-
608	burn	*bha- (*bhak-)
609	bundle	*-bhom- (*-bhomb-)
610	roar	*bhung-
75	cut	*cet-
76	country, ground	*-cí
77	horn	*-cín-
78	fall in drops	*cod- (*col-)
79	prick with point	*cok-
80	be pointed	*con-
81	pierce	*co- (*cot-)
82	urine	*-cú (*-cwi)
83	broth	*-cul-
84	bad humour	*-cun-
85	wash	*cu- (*cuk-)
611	charm	*-cang-
612	pestle	*-ci
613	cupping horn	*-cuk-
86	lie down, sleep	*dád- (*dál-)
87	be mad	*dád-
88	crawl, spread	*dad-
89	jaw, chin	*-dàd-
90	old	*-dada
91	buy	*dàl-
92	be in health	*dám-
93	relative by marriage	*-dém- (*-diam-)
94	to be	*di
95	eat	*di-
96	righthand	*-dí-, *-dio-
97	allow	*diak-
98	tend, heed	*dik- (*dink-)
99	extinguish	*dim- (*dium-)
100	darkness	*-dim- (*-dium-, *-tim-)
101	spirit	*-dim- (*-dium-)
102	today	*-dina- (*-diant-)
103	fire	*-dìná
104	night	*-do (*-dua)
105	look at, love	*dol-
106	ashes	*-dot-
107	lie, sleep	*dua-
107a	drip, leak	*dug- (*du-)
108	tribe, clan	*-dug-
109	knee	*-dui-
110	bite	*dúm-
111	pull	*dut-
614	be angry	*da-
615	debt	*-dantu
616	be slack	*ded-
617	tread	*dibat-
112	(fishing) net	*-gabu
113	lie (down, on back)	*gal-
114	hunger	*-gál- (*-gyál-)
115	to love	*gand-
116	hindred	*-gà (*-gàna)
117	scale of fish	*-gemp- (*-giamp-)
118	avoid	*gep- (*gyep-)
119	locust	*-giguni (*-guniguni)
120	fire-place	*-gik-
121	avoid (taboo), abstain	*-gìl-
122	egg	*-gíla-
123	stand	*gim- (*gium-)
124	be thin, lean	*gond-
124a	fat, oil	*-gú- (*-gút-)
125	groundnut	*-gugi-
126	sky (above)	*-gúlu-
618	be insane	*gad-
619	intoxicating beverage	*-gad-
620	clan	*-gan- (*-gin-)
127	yesterday	*-ghàná
128	blood	*-ghìá
129	stranger, guest	*-ghína-
130	fly; (to fly)	*-ghi (*-ghwyi?)
131	be alive	*ghi- (*ghim-)
132	name	*-ghínà
133	steal (thief)	*ghiu-
133a	top, head	*-ghiu- (*-ghidu)
134	to fly	*ghul- (*ghyul-)
135	become rotten	*ghund-
621	increase	*ghand-
136	to fall	*gwa
137	divide	*gwàb-
138	hook	*-gwab- (*-kwab-)
139	look at, examine	*gwabh-
140	arm, hand	*-gwal-
141	to flow	*gwàl- (*gwyèl-)
142	speak	*gwam-
143	dry (in the sun)	*gwan-
144	hang (up)	*gwàng-
145	split	*gwá- (*gwát-)
146	answer	*gwa- (*gwya-t-)
147	string, rope	*-gwe-
148	mane	*-gwendi
149	go	*gwìa
150	leopard	*-gwìl-
151	deny, refuse	*gwím-
152	sing	*gwím- (*gwyím-)
153	dust	*-gwimbe
154	pour	*gwit-
155	female genitals	*-gwo
156	become, be bent	*gwob-
157	be straight	*gwol-
158	strength	*-gwol- (*-gwel-)
159	fall asleep, sleep	*gwol- (*gwon-)
160	snore	*gwon-
161	sheep (goat)	*-gwu-
162	to cover	*gwub-
163	shin, (lower) leg	*-gwùl-
164	buy, barter	*gwul- (*-gwyul-)
165	bird	*-gwùn- (*-gwyùn-)
622	hippopotamus	*-gwab-
623	tell a tale	*gwan-
624	cover	*gwin-
625	accustom	*gwog-
166	be quick, hurry	*-ghwak- (*-ghwyak-)
167	snake	*-ghwákà (*-ghwyákà)
168	child	*-ghwyán-
169	hair	*-ghwíli (*-ghwyíli)
170	sun	*-ghwín
171	thorn	*-ghwyu (*-ghwuni)
172	year	*-ják- (*-gwyák-?)
173	woman (female)	*-jali
174	animal (meat)	*-jam-
175	shine, be white	*jel-
176	moon	*-jél-
177	come from	*ji-
178	compound, settlement	*-ji-
179	fear	*jid- (*jit-)
180	build	*jing-
181	dance	*jo- (*jol-)
182	burn (fire)	*-jot-
626	cross a river	*jab- (*jamb-)
627	enclosure	*jag-
628	kind of frog	*-jul-
183	home	*ka-
184	hand, arm	*-ka (*-kya)
185	chase	*kak-
186	be, make dry	*ka- (*kak-)
187	sour	*kak- (*kaky-)
188	grandfather, master	*-kaka
189	blood	*-kàl-
190	sit (down), remain	*kàl-
191	fierce	*-kal-
192	long ago	*-kal-
193	crab	*-kála
194	squeeze out	*kam-
195	deny, refuse	*kan-
196	day, daylight	*-kán- (*-kyán-)
197	shell (of snail)	*-kande
198	be tired, tire	*kat-
199	headpad	*-káà (*-kátà)
200	tooth	*-kéka
201	small	*-keke (*-ken-)
202	cut	*kél-
203	split	*ken-
204	gnaw, bite	*ket- (*keket-)
205	village (settlement)	*-ki (*-kyi, *-ci)
206	to dawn	*kì-, *kìa
207	laugh	*kiak-
208	side	*-kian-
209	woman, wife	*-kíe
210	eyebrow	*-kig-
211	tail	*-kíla
212	press	*kin-
213	be silent	*kin-
214	kind of palm tree	*-kint-
215	to end	*kit-
216	abhor, refuse	*kit-
217	moon	*-kiul-
218	crow, cackle (cock, fowl)	*kol-, *kolkol-
219	hollow	*kom-
220	become crooked	*kom-
221	fold, bend	*kon-
222	woodpecker (knock)	*-kont- (*-koa-)
223	bend, stoop	*kòt-
224	big lizard (crocodile)	*-kóti
225	urinate	*ko-
226	kill	*ku-
227	go	*kua-
228	relative by marriage	*-kua- (*-kyua-)
229	seize	*kua- (*kuat-)
230	smithery	*-kuabi (*-kuba)
231	to cough	*kual-
232	guinea-f owl	*-kuang-
233	scrape (off)	*kuap-
234	rust	*-kuata
235	gnaw	*kuekit-
236	firewood	*-kui, *-kuni
237	to tie	*kuk-
238	fowl, chicken	*-kuki
239	heap	*kú- (*kúk-)
240	be old; ancestor	*-kú, *-kúku
241	draw out (water)	*kul-
242	be old	*-kúl-
243	kind of antelope	*-kul-
244	love, desire	*kul-
245	satiate (thirst)	*kul-
246	smooth (by rubbing)	*kul-, *kulun-
247	to roll	*kul-, *kulun-
248	weep (tear)	*kul- (*kyul-)
249	millipede	*-kúlan-
250	kind of ant	*-kum-
251	bean	*-kun-
252	fill a mouth	*kun-
253	bug	*-kun-
629	tortoise	*-kamb-
630	to cry	*ku-
631	bend (eal)	*kung-
254	woman (wife)	*-khál- (*-khánd-)
255	charcoal	*-khál-
256	cut (off)	*khant-
257	sand	*-khan- (*-khyan-)
258	sand	*-kheke
259	hiccough	*-khikue
259a	charcoal	*-khila
260	possess; owner	*khin-
261	to play	*khin- (*kwyin-?)
262	fish	*-khiuni, *-khuini
263	be crooked	*khok-
264	hole, hollow	*-kholo-
265	scratch, scrape off	*khuat-
266	crocodile	*-khúìn-
267	ask for	*khum-
268	swell	*khum-
269	copulate	*khun- (*khuin-)
270	fog	*khun-
271	eyelid	*khupa
272	rub	*khut-
273	sheep (goat)	*-khutan-
274	cough	*-kwác- (*-kwánc-)
275	rub, wash	*kwak-
276	cheek	*-kwakw- (*-kwyakw-)
277	kind of hawk	*-kwal-
278	snore	*kwal-
279	frog	*-kwal- (*-kwyal-)
280	kind of antelope	*-kwal- (*-kwyal-)
281	captive, prisoner	*-kwal-
282	meet, assemble	*kwam-
283	fence	*-kwam-
284	arm, hand	*-kwán-
285	scrape	*kwán-
286	squirrel	*-kwándi (*-kwyándi)
287	shake	*kwank- (*kwink-)
288	nape of the neck (neck)	*-kwànt-
289	path, track	*-kwánt-
290	bag, basket	*-kwapo
291	ring	*-kwat-
292	cut	*kwèk- (*kwyèk-)
293	to cover	*kwind-
294	tick	*-kwipa
295	scar	*-kwod-
296	hate (be ugly)	*kwol-
297	become drunk	*kwol-
298	heart, breastbone	*-kwol-
299	to spy	*kwol- (*kwyol-)
300	set (of sun)	*kwu- (*kwyu-)
301	dry, hard	*kwua-
302	termite	*-kwua (*-kwyua)
303	skin (bark, husk)	*-kwuba
304	knee	*-kwudi-, *-kwunt-
305	be big	*-kwul-
306	tortoise (turtle)	*-kwúlu (*-kwúlui)
307	navel	*-kwuna-
308	knot (tie knot)	*kwund-
309	gather (up)	*kwúng-
310	shake (off)	*kwùnk-
311	fist	*-kwunt-
312	short	*-kwup-
313	pour out, empty	*kwut-
314	oil, fat	*-kwúa (*-kwút-)
315	snail	*-khwab-
316	kind of vulture or hawk	*-khwab- (*-nkhwab-)
317	partridge	*-khwád-
318	war	*-khwán-
319	to peel	*khwel- (*khwend-)
320	across	*khwig-
321	elbow	*-khwol-, *-khwulkhwul-
322	fish-trap	*-khwon-
323	return (home)	*khwot- (*khwod-)
324	embrace	*khwub-
325	die (dead person, death)	*kwwú-, *khwúi
326	anus	*-khwul-
327	bone	*-khwúpà
632	jealousy	*-khwupa-
328	jaw	*-lak-
329	stick to	*làm- (*làbh-)
330	lick	*lam- (*liam-)
331	shine	*lan- (*lian-)
332	tongue	*-lélum- (*-lúm-)
333	heavy, difficult	*lèm-
334	lame	*lém-
335	family, clan	*- li
336	be tired	*liam-
337	hang down, dangle	*liang-
338	bird-lime	*-lìm- (*-lìmb-)
339	tongue	*-líma (*-líami)
340	pit, hole	*-lind-
341	to watch	*lind-
342	water	*-lingi
343	shade, shadow	*-liuli (*-lindi)
344	root	*-líul- (*-líl-)
345	hit; kill	*liup- (*lip-)
346	heavy	*lìut- (*lìt-)
347	catch fish (fish)	*lob-
348	wound, sore	*-lónd-
349	dream	*lot- (*lod-)
350	be ill	*lú- (*lúa-)
351	dip in	*lúb-
352	drip, leak	*lùg- (*lù-)
353	put on, wear clothes	*lui- (*lu-)
354	go out	*lùi- (*lù-)
355	shut (invers, open)	*luig- (*lug-)
356	bewitch	*lùk- (*lòg-)
357	plait, weave	*lùk- (*lù-)
358	be bitter (bile)	*lùl-
359	shouting, noise	*lul-
360	rain	*lùmb-
361	be or put straight	*lumb- (*lun-)
362	clouds	*-lund-
363	knee	*-lúnku- (*-dúnku-)
633	look for	*lab-
634	renounce	*lant-
635	tread	*liat- (*lat-)
636	look (at)	*lod- (*lud-)
637	suff er	*lum-
364	finish, be finished	*mal-
365	mother, grandmother	*-mà, *-màma
366	dew	*-màni- (*-mìna)
367	know	*man-
368	be full	*mem- (*mam-?)
369	I, me	*mi, *ami
370	silent	*mi- (*mil-)
371	swallow	*mìl-
372	throat	*-mìl-
373	nose	*-míl-, *-míla
374	nasal mucus	*-mìlá
375	know	*min-
376	press, sqeeze	*mín-
377	see	*món- (*bhón-)
378a	thou, you (sing.)	*mu-
378b	you (plur.)	*mui
379	knife, razor	*-mua, *-muo
380	back, spine	*-mua, *-uma
381	to shine	*mual-
382	laugh	*muam-, *muamuat-, *muat-
383	close the mouth; be mute	*mum-
384	to suck	*mún-
385	to suck	*mung-
638	be astonished	*mang- (*mak-)
639	one; first	*-mot-
386	wash	*nabh-
387	animal, meat	*-nam-
388	four	*-nán-
389	I, me	*ni (*ine)
390	defecate	*ní-
391	rain	*ni- (*nia-)
392	you (plur.)	*-ni-, *-nia
393	four	*-ní- (*-nía-)
394	elephant; tusk	*-ní-, *-níang-
395	big, stout	*-nian-
396	mouth	*-níana
397	eight	*-niani
398	give	*nik-
399	tooth	*-nín- (*-níghin-)
400	mother	*-nina, *-ninu
401	eye	*-nín-, *-nínu
402	person, man	*-nintu (*-nitu)
403	buffalo	*-nitati
404	mouth	*-níuna (*-núa)
405	bird	*-nùni
406	to drink	*ŋiu- (*ŋium-, *ŋu-)
407	to smell	*ŋun- (*ŋunk-)
408	to scratch	*ŋwa-
409	nose	*-ŋwá- (*-ŋwyá-, *-ŋwúna)
410	smoke	*-ŋwákì (*-ŋwátì)
411	moon	*-ŋwál-
412	star	*-ŋwát-
413	bee; honey	*-ŋwo-
414	rub, smear	*pak-
415	put high	*pak-
416	border, boundary	*-pak- (*-pank-)
417	meet	*pak-, *pa-
418	spread	*pal-
419	shoulder, wing	*-papa-
420	seize	*pat-
421	alone	*pek-
422	become finished	*pel-
423	shine	*pem-
424	beat	*pi-
425	roast, cook	*pi-
426	sweep; broom	*pí- (*píd-)
427	stone, rock	*-pí-
428	accompany	*piad-
428a	moon	*-pìal- (*-pìan-)
429	kind of antelope	*-píala (*-pála)
430	blow, fan, winnow	*piap-
431	wind	*-píap-
432	seize	*piat-
433	rub with fingers	*pik-
434	to hide	*pik-
435	arrive, come	*pík- (*bhík-?)
436	wing	*-piko
437	pus	*-pil-
438	lie across	*pin- (*ping-)
439	press, squeeze out	*pìn-
440	handle, hilt	*-pin-
441	suck	*pip- (*piop-)
442	hyena	*-piti
443	kind of antelope	*-pok-
444	knead	*pok- (*pong-)
445	become rotten	*pót-
446	cease, finish	*pu-
447	suffer from diarrhoea	*puak-
448	resemble	*puan-
449	bark (skin)	*-puk-, *-puak-
450	mature	*puk-
451	strip off	*pul-
452	go or come out	*pum-
453	blind	*-pum- (*-pup-)
454	rub off	*punk-
455	blind	*-puo- (*-pio-)
456	beat	*put- (*pun-)
457	bend, fold	*put-
458	stomach, belly; intestines	*-pút-
459	wound, sore	*-puta (*-puna)
640	be bent sideways	*pek- (*peng-)
641	nostril	*-pel-
642	knife	*-pi-
643	be against	*pik-
644	plait	*ping-
645	be healthy	*pit-
646	escape	*pon-
460	give	*phá-
461	scrape; scratch	*phal-
462	cutlass	*-phán- (*-pháng-)
463	give	*phe- (*pha.i-?)
464	the itch	*-phèli
465	breathe	*phem-
466	blow the nose	*phem-
467	blow, fan, winnow	*phet-
468	spit out, vomit	*phi-
469	burn (fire)	*phi- (*phai, *phia)
470	cold	*-phíàp-
471	kind of millet	*-phila
472	to pass	*phit-
473	speak	*phoph-
473a	new	*-phua-, *phwai-
474	to blow	*phud-
475	to dig	*phuk-
476	to blow, breathe; lungs	*-phuk- (*-phung-)
477	mouse, rat	*-phuki
478	boil up, seethe	*phul-
479	foam	*-phúl-
480	lungs	*-phul-, *-phulphul-
481	breathe	*phum-
482	nose	*-phúna
483	pigeon, dove (flap wings)	*phup-
484	wind, blowing of wind	*-phúph- (*-phún-, *-phunphun-)
485	be light (in weight)	*phu- (*phuph-)
486	bow (shoot w. bow)	*-tá-
487	father	*-tá, *-tata
488	kind of trap	*-tagi (*-tangi)
489	chew	*ták-, *tákun-
490	look at	*tal-
491	bridge	*-tal-
492	grasshopper	*-talitali
493	overpower	*tam-
494	walk, travel	*tamb-
495	extend, spread	*tànd-
496	kind of palm tree	*-tandi
497	be first, in front	*tang-, *tiang-
498	spittle	*-táni (*-itan-)
499	to tear	*tatul-, *tiat-
500	name	*-télà
501	cut down	*tem-
502	burn	*tem-
503	make	*tend-
504	tree	*-tí
505	inside	*-ti
506	middle, amid	*-ti-, *-titi-
507	bind	*tiak-
508	shake, tremble	*tiantiam-
509	rub	*ti- (*tik-)
510	hiccup	*-tikue
511	driver ant	*-tilaku
512	to dig	*tim-, *tium-
513	stick into the ground, plant	*tìm-, *tìmb-
514	heart (liver)	*-timu
515	root (trunk)	*-tin-
516	cut	*tin- (*ten-)
517	cut, cut off	*ting-
518	small	*-titua (*-tin-)
519	we	*-tiu
520	navel	*-tont- (*-tonton)
521	to pound	*tú- (*itu-, *tiu-)
522	mortar	*-tudi, *-tudu
523	head	*-túi
524	work	*-túim-
525	belly; abdomen	*-tuimb- (*-temb-, *-tumb-)
526	to curse	*tuk- (*tiuk-)
527	to boil, be hot	*tuk-
528	go down	*tul-
529	to forge	*tul-
530	throw, shoot	*tu-, *tum-
531	roast, cook	*tumb- (*tun-)
532	cohabit	*tu- (*tumb-)
533	pestle	*-tun-
534	hurt a sore	*tun-
535	build	*tu- (*tun-)
536	instruct (punish)	*tund-
537	hill, mountain	*-túnda
538	spit (vomit)	*túph-
539	carry	*tut-
647	carry	*teb-
648	cloud	*-tu-
649	basket	*-tung-
540	war	*-thá
541	stone (rock)	*-thála, *-tháli
542	three	*-tháthu
543	put; put into	*thi- (*ti-)
544	father	*-thí (*-thía, *-thína)
545	slip, be slippery	*thíal- (*thíalil-)
546	grind, rub	*thìd-
547	leave	*thi-, *thig-
548	remain, stay	*thi-, *thig-
549	stand	*thim-, *thium-
550	night	*-thithuka
551	leopard, wild cat	*-thimb-
552	dirt, morass, mud	*-thòp-
553	carry (on head)	*thu- (*thud-, *thuk-)
554	river, water-place	*-thu, *-thua
555	pierce, perforate	*thubh-
556	ear	*-thúi, *-thú-
557	come from	*thu-, *thuk-
558	send	*thum-
559	mouth, lips	*-thum-
560	ashes	*-thún-
561	urinate	*thúnd-
650	backbone	*-than-
562	five	*-tsánu? (*-tánu)
563	star	*-tsondua? (*-tondua)
564	stick	*-tsuang-? (*-tuang-)
565	be silent	*tsun-? (*tun-)
566	open the mouth	*yak- (*yakam-)
567	kind of ape	*-yan-
568	borrow, lend	*ya- (*yali-)
569	armpit	*-yap-
570	boat	*-yat-
571	eye	*-yíc - (*-yínc-, *níc-)
572	name	*-yítu
573	call (by name)	*yí- (*yít-)
574	live	*yom-
652	taboo	*-yiku (*-kui)
653	the other day	*-yilo