私

See also: 厶

私	U+79C1, 私 CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-79C1

← 秀
[U+79C0]

CJK Unified Ideographs

秂 →
[U+79C2]

Translingual

Stroke order

Han character

私 (Kangxi radical 115, 禾+2, 7 strokes, cangjie input 竹木戈 (HDI), four-corner 2293₀, composition ⿰禾厶)

Derived characters

俬, 𭈀, 𦮺, 𥢅/𥢆/𫁅

References

Kangxi Dictionary: page 849, character 5
Dai Kanwa Jiten: character 24913
Dae Jaweon: page 1271, character 2
Hanyu Da Zidian (first edition): volume 4, page 2589, character 6
Unihan data for U+79C1

Chinese

simp. and trad.		私
2nd round simp.		厶
alternative forms		厶 ancient

Glyph origin

Characters in the same phonetic series (厶) (Zhengzhang, 2003)

	Old Chinese
私	*sil
厶	*sil

Phono-semantic compound (形聲 / 形声, OC *sil): semantic 禾 (“grain”) + phonetic 厶 (OC *sil) – private grain or field.

Displaced the original form 厶.

Pronunciation

Mandarin
(Standard)
(Pinyin): sī (si¹)

(Zhuyin): ㄙ

(Dungan, Cyrillic and Wiktionary): сы (sɨ, I)
Cantonese (Jyutping): si¹
Gan (Wiktionary): si¹
Hakka
(Sixian, PFS): sṳ̂

(Hailu, HRS): sii^ˋ

(Meixian, Guangdong): si¹
Jin (Wiktionary): si¹
Northern Min (KCR): sú
Eastern Min (BUC): sĭ
Puxian Min (Pouseng Ping'ing): si¹ / so¹
Southern Min
(Hokkien, POJ): sai / sir / su / si

(Teochew, Peng'im): se¹ / sai¹
Wu (Shanghai, Wugniu): ¹sy
Xiang (Changsha, Wiktionary): sr¹

Mandarin
- (Standard Chinese)⁺
  - Hanyu Pinyin: sī
  - Zhuyin: ㄙ
  - Tongyong Pinyin: sih
  - Wade–Giles: ssŭ¹
  - Yale: sz̄
  - Gwoyeu Romatzyh: sy
  - Palladius: сы (sy)
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /sz̩⁵⁵/
- (Dungan)
  - Cyrillic and Wiktionary: сы (sɨ, I)
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /sz̩²⁴/
  (Note: Dungan pronunciation is currently experimental and may be inaccurate.)
Cantonese
- (Standard Cantonese, Guangzhou–Hong Kong)
  - Jyutping: si¹
  - Yale: sī
  - Cantonese Pinyin: si¹
  - Guangdong Romanization: xi¹
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /siː⁵⁵/
Gan
- (Nanchang)
  - Wiktionary: si¹
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /sz̩⁴²/
Hakka
- (Sixian, incl. Miaoli and Neipu)
  - Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: sṳ̂
  - Hakka Romanization System: sii^ˊ
  - Hagfa Pinyim: si¹
  - Sinological IPA: /sɨ²⁴/
- (Hailu, incl. Zhudong)
  - Hakka Romanization System: sii^ˋ
  - Sinological IPA: /sɨ⁵³/
- (Meixian)
  - Guangdong: si¹
  - Sinological IPA: /sz̩⁴⁴/
Jin
- (Taiyuan)⁺
  - Wiktionary: si¹
  - Sinological IPA (old-style): /sz̩¹¹/
Northern Min
- (Jian'ou)
  - Kienning Colloquial Romanized: sú
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /su⁵⁴/
Eastern Min
- (Fuzhou)
  - Bàng-uâ-cê: sĭ
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /si⁵⁵/
Puxian Min
- (Putian)
  - Pouseng Ping'ing: si¹
  - Báⁿ-uā-ci̍: si
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /ɬi⁵³³/
- (Xianyou)
  - Pouseng Ping'ing: si¹
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /ɬi⁵⁴⁴/
- (Putian)
  - Pouseng Ping'ing: so¹
  - Báⁿ-uā-ci̍: seo
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /ɬo⁵³³/
- (Xianyou)
  - Pouseng Ping'ing: so¹
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /ɬo⁵⁴⁴/

Note:

si1 - vernacular;
so1 - literary.

Southern Min
- (Hokkien: Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou, General Taiwanese)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: sai
  - Tâi-lô: sai
  - Phofsit Daibuun: say
  - IPA (Quanzhou): /sai³³/
  - IPA (Xiamen, Zhangzhou, Taipei, Kaohsiung): /sai⁴⁴/
- (Hokkien: Quanzhou)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: sir
  - Tâi-lô: sir
  - IPA (Quanzhou): /sɯ³³/
- (Hokkien: General Taiwanese, Xiamen, Zhangzhou)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: su
  - Tâi-lô: su
  - Phofsit Daibuun: sw
  - IPA (Taipei, Kaohsiung, Xiamen, Zhangzhou): /su⁴⁴/
- (Hokkien: Jinjiang, Philippines)
  - Pe̍h-ōe-jī: si
  - Tâi-lô: si
  - Phofsit Daibuun: sy
  - IPA (Jinjiang, Philippines): /si³³/

Note:

sai - vernacular;
sir/su - literary.

(Teochew)
- Peng'im: se¹ / sai¹
- Pe̍h-ōe-jī-like: sṳ / sai
- Sinological IPA ^(key): /sɯ³³/, /sai³³/

Note:

se1 - literary;
sai1 - vernacular.

Wu
- (Northern: Shanghai)
  - Wugniu: ¹sy
  - MiniDict: sy^平
  - Wiktionary Romanisation (Shanghai): ¹sr
  - Sinological IPA (Shanghai): /sz̩⁵³/
Xiang
- (Changsha)
  - Wiktionary: sr¹
  - Sinological IPA ^(key): /sz̩³³/

Middle Chinese: sij

Rime
Character	私
Reading #	1/1
Initial (聲)	心 (16)
Final (韻)	脂 (15)
Tone (調)	Level (Ø)
Openness (開合)	Open
Division (等)	III
Fanqie	息夷切
Baxter	sij
Reconstructions
Zhengzhang Shangfang	/siɪ/
Pan Wuyun	/si/
Shao Rongfen	/sjɪ/
Edwin Pulleyblank	/si/
Li Rong	/si/
Wang Li	/si/
Bernhard Karlgren	/si/
Expected Mandarin Reflex	sī
Expected Cantonese Reflex	si¹

Old Chinese
(Baxter–Sagart): /*[s]əj/

(Zhengzhang): /*sil/

Baxter–Sagart system 1.1 (2014)
Character	私
Reading #	1/1
Modern Beijing (Pinyin)	sī
Middle Chinese	‹ sij ›
Old Chinese	/*[s]əj/
English	private
Notes for Old Chinese notations in the Baxter–Sagart system: * Parentheses "()" indicate uncertain presence; * Square brackets "[]" indicate uncertain identity, e.g. [t] as coda may in fact be -t or -p; Angle brackets "<>" indicate infix; * Hyphen "-" indicates morpheme boundary; * Period "." indicates syllable boundary.

Zhengzhang system (2003)
Character	私
Reading #	1/1
No.	11949
Phonetic component	厶
Rime group	脂
Rime subdivision	1
Corresponding MC rime	私
Old Chinese	/*sil/

Definitions

私

self; personal; private
私人 ― sīrén ― personal

私有 ― sīyǒu ― private
selfish
自私 ― zìsī ― selfish
(Can we add an example for this sense?) (Classical, humble) first-person singular pronoun: I; me
illegal or secret goods
走私 ― zǒusī ― to smuggle
stealthily; secretly
私語／私语 ― sīyǔ ― to whisper
(obsolete) Used by women to refer to their sister's husband
reproductive organs; genitals
(Internet slang) Short for 私聊 (sīliáo, “to PM, to DM”).

Descendants

Sino-Xenic (私):

→ Japanese: 私(し) (shi)
→ Korean: 사(私) (sa)
→ Vietnamese: tư (私)

Compounds

Japanese

Kanji

私

(Sixth grade kyōiku kanji)

Readings

Go-on: し (shi, Jōyō)
Kan-on: し (shi, Jōyō)
Kun: わたくし (watakushi, 私, Jōyō)、わたし (watashi, 私, Jōyō)、ひそかに (hisokani, 私かに)

Compounds

私語(ささめごと) (sasamegoto)
私語(ささや)く (sasayaku, “to whisper, rumor”)

Etymology 1

Kanji in this term
私
わたし Grade: 6
kun'yomi

Alternative spelling
和多志 (neologism)

Shift from watakushi below.^[1]^[2]

This reading was already prevalent in early modern times, possibly around the mid-late Muromachi to early-Edo period.

Pronunciation

(Tokyo) わたし [wàtáshí] (Heiban – [0])^[2]^[3]
IPA^(key): [β̞a̠ta̠ɕi]

Pronoun

私(わたし) • (watashi)

(polite) first-person singular pronoun: I, me
私(わたし)はイギリス人(じん)です。
Watashi wa Igirisu-jin desu.
I am British.

Usage notes

Watashi is the usual polite term for referring to oneself.

Quotations

For quotations using this term, see Citations:私.

Coordinate terms

Japanese first-person pronouns

Japanese first-person pronouns by speakers and situations according to Yuko Saegusa, Concerning the First Personal Pronoun of Native Japanese Speakers (2009)

First-person pronouns by elementary school pupils (2008)
Speaker	Situation	1	2	3
Female	To friends	うち (uchi) 49%	First name 26%	あたし (atashi) 15%
	In the family	First name 33%	あたし (atashi) 29%	うち (uchi) 23%
	In a class	わたし (watashi) 86%	あたし (atashi) 7%	うち (uchi) 6%
	To an unknown visitor	わたし (watashi) 75%	あたし (atashi), first name, うち (uchi) 8% each
	To the class teacher	わたし (watashi) 66%	First name 13%	あたし (atashi) 9%
Male	To friends	おれ (ore) 72%	ぼく (boku) 19%	First name 4%
	In the family	おれ (ore) 62%	ぼく (boku) 23%	うち (uchi) 6%
	In a class	ぼく (boku) 85%	おれ (ore) 13%	First name, nickname 1% each
	To an unknown visitor	ぼく (boku) 64%	おれ (ore) 26%	First name 4%
	To the class teacher	ぼく (boku) 67%	おれ (ore) 27%	First name 3%

First-person pronouns by university students (2009)
Speaker	Situation	1	2	3
Female	To friends	うち (uchi) 39%	あたし (atashi) 30%	わたし (watashi) 22%
	In the family	あたし (atashi) 28%	First name 27%	うち (uchi) 18%
	In a class	わたし (watashi) 89%	あたし (atashi) 7%	自分(じぶん) (jibun) 3%
	To an unknown visitor	わたし (watashi) 81%	あたし (atashi) 10%	自分(じぶん) (jibun) 6%
	To the class teacher	わたし (watashi) 77%	あたし (atashi) 17%	自分(じぶん) (jibun) 7%
Male	To friends	おれ (ore) 87%	うち (uchi) 4%	わたし (watashi), 自分(じぶん) (jibun) 2% each
	In the family	おれ (ore) 88%	ぼく (boku), 自分(じぶん) (jibun) 5% each
	In a class	わたし (watashi) 48%	自分(じぶん) (jibun) 28%	ぼく (boku) 22%
	To an unknown visitor	ぼく (boku) 36%	自分(じぶん) (jibun) 29%	わたし (watashi) 22%
	To the class teacher	自分(じぶん) (jibun) 38%	ぼく (boku) 29%	わたし (watashi) 22%

Derived terms

私(わたし)達(たち) (watashitachi)
私(わたし)共(ども) (watashidomo)
あたし (atashi)
わたい (watai)
わたす (watasu)
わっし (wasshi)
わっち (watchi)

Etymology 2

Kanji in this term
私
わたくし Grade: 6
kun'yomi

From Old Japanese 私 (watakusi).

A surface analysis suggests a compound term. However, no likely etyma are known.

From first-person pronoun 我 (wa, “I, me”) + takusi: although the first element seems likely, the original meaning of watakushi was “private”, as opposed to “public”, with no first-person pronoun usage until the late 13th century.
From wata + kusi: the only phonetic matches are 綿 (wata, “cotton; cotton batting”), 腸 (wata, “guts, one's innards”, likely derived from the “batting” sense), 海 (wata, “sea, ocean”) + 串 (kusi, “skewer”), 奇し (kusi, “magic, fantastic, supernatural”, adjective), 酒 (kusi, “alcoholic beverage”, likely derived from the “magic” sense), 櫛 (kusi, “comb”).
From wataku + si: no such word wataku appears to exist.
From wa + ta + ku + si: unknown.

The meaning evolved over time from “private” or “privatization”, to refer to things that are personal, to refer to one's own person, and then finally to serve as a generic first-person pronoun. The full form watakushi is still used in modern Japanese as a formal, highly polite first-person pronoun. The abbreviated form watashi is now the most common and neutrally polite first-person pronoun.

Pronunciation

(Tokyo) わたくし [wàtákúshí] (Heiban – [0])^[2]^[3]
IPA^(key): [β̞a̠ta̠kɯ̟̊ɕi]

Noun

私(わたくし) • (watakushi)

a personal or private matter
(by extension) selfishness
Synonyms: 自分勝手 (jibun katte), 私利私欲 (shiri shiyoku)

Derived terms

私(わたくし)する (watakushisuru)
私(わたくし)商(あきな)い (watakushi akinai)
私(わたくし)雨(あめ) (watakushi ame, “sudden rain shower falling in just a small area”)
私(わたくし)戦(いくさ), 私(わたくし)軍(いくさ) (watakushi ikusa, “private feud”)
私(わたくし)銀(がね), 私(わたくし)金(がね) (watakushigane, “personal money, secret savings, financial nest egg”)
私(わたくし)事(ごと) (watakushigoto)
私(わたくし)戦(たたか)い (watakushi tatakai, “private feud”)
私(わたくし)戯(たわぶ)れ (watakushi tawabure, “chatting up a go-between or mediator, as an aside to the main issue being mediated”)

Pronoun

私(わたくし) • (watakushi)

(formal) first-person singular pronoun: I, me

Usage notes

Watakushi is the formal term, only used in certain circumstances, such as by TV announcers or public figures such as politicians. Conversely, it is too formal for casual conversation for men, where terms like 俺 (ore) are preferred.

Derived terms

私(わたし) (watashi)
私(わたくし)達(たち) (watakushitachi)
私(わたくし)共(ども) (watakushidomo)
あたくし (atakushi)
わちき (wachiki)

Etymology 3

Kanji in this term
私
し Grade: 6
on'yomi

/si/ → /ɕi/

From Middle Chinese 私 (MC sij).

Affix

私(し) • (shi)

personal, private
secret

Derived terms

私(し)愛(あい) (shiai, “favoritism, partiality; a secret love for a woman; the woman so loved”)
私(し)安(あん)警(けい)察(さつ) (shian-keisatsu, “private police”)
私(し)案(あん) (shian, “private plan or proposal”)
私(し)意(い) (shī, “personal opinion; bias; selfishness”)
私(し)印(いん) (shīn, “private sigil, signet, stamp, or seal”)
私(し)印(いん)偽(ぎ)造(ぞう) (shīngizō, “creating a copy of someone else's sigil to forge their stamp”)
私(し)営(えい) (shiei, “private operation, privately operated”)
私(し)営(えい)鉄(てつ)道(どう) (shiei tetsudō, “privately-operated railway, private rails”)
私(し)営(えい)田(でん) (shieiden): in the Heian Period, fields used for large-scale private farming by powerful clans, rather than public farming by the state
私(し)益(えき) (shieki, “private or individual profit or gain”)
私(し)謁(えつ) (shietsu, “audience with the emperor regarding a private matter; a private rather than public request”)
私(し)怨(えん) (shien, “private grudge, hatred, ill will”)
私(し)恩(おん) (shion, “favor or duty owed to an individual”)
私(し)家(か) (shika, “one's own home; an individual's home, as opposed to the palace or an office”)
私(し)家(か)集(しゅう) (shikashū): in the Edo Period and earlier, an individual's collection or anthology of poetry
私(し)家(か)版(ばん) (shikaban, “self-publishing, generally without profit motive and with limited distribution; private printing or private edition”)
私(し)学(がく) (shigaku, “individual's school of thought”)
私(し)学(がっ)校(こう) (shigakkō, “private school”)
私(し)学(がく)助(じょ)成(せい) (shigaku josei, “government subsidization of private education”)
私(し)感(かん) (shikan, “one's personal feeling about something”)
私(し)間(かん)法(ほう) (shikanhō, “conflict of laws; private international law”)
私(し)企(き)業(ぎょう) (shikigyō, “private enterprise; privately-owned company”)
私(し)記(き) (shiki, “private record of something”)
私(し)擬(ぎ)-憲(けん)法(ぽう) (shigikenpō, “privately drafted constitution”, more specifically the Japanese constitution created during 1880-1887)
私(し)義(ぎ)務(む) (shi gimu, “duty or obligation arising from private law”)
私(し)議(ぎ) (shigi, “secret criticism, badmouthing; personal or private opinion”)
私(し)教(きょう)類(るい)聚(じゅう) (shikyō-ruijū, Japan's oldest collection of moral instructions, written by Kibi Makibi in the 700s)
私(し)業(ぎょう) (shigyō, “work done as an individual; work done for individual profit”)
私(し)曲(きょく) (shikyoku, “unjust act committed solely to benefit oneself”)
私(し)金(きん) (shikin, “private money; money owned by an individual”)
私(し)刑(けい) (shikei, “punishment meted out by vigilante or mob justice”)
私(し)恵(けい) (shikei, “private favor”)
私(し)経(けい)済(ざい) (shikeizai, “private economy: economic dealings between private individuals or companies”)
私(し)計(けい) (shikei, “one's own thoughts and opinions; one's own schemes or plans”)
私(し)隙(げき) (shigeki, “private discord”)
私(し)権(けん) (shiken, “private or personal rights”)
私(し)見(けん) (shiken, humble word for “one's own personal opinions”)
私(し)語(ご) (shigo, “whisper, whispering, private conversation”)
私(し)交(こう) (shikō, “personal or private friendship or socializing”)
私(し)考(こう) (shikō, “one's own personal thoughts”)
私(し)行(こう) (shikō, “private actions in one's own life; secret act; going out for personal reasons; sneaking out”)
私(し)田(でん) (shiden)
私(し)稲(とう) (shitō): in the Nara and Heian periods, rice plants owned by an individual rather than by the state
私(し)法(ほう) (shihō)

Noun

私(し) • (shi)

a personal or private matter
selfishness
privacy, secrecy
(women's speech, obsolete) a brother-in-law

Derived terms

私(し)バス (shibasu, “privately operated bus”)

Etymology 4

Kanji in this term
私
あたし Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【あたし】

[pronoun] (chiefly women's speech) first person singular pronoun: I, me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 5

Kanji in this term
私
あたくし Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【あたくし】

[pronoun] more polite form of あたし (atashi)

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 6

Kanji in this term
私
あっし Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【あっし】

[pronoun] [from 1908] first person singular pronoun: I, me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 7

Kanji in this term
私
あし Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry: あし

(The following entry does not have a page created for it yet: あし.)

Etymology 8

Kanji in this term
私
あたい Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【あたい】

[pronoun] (informal) first-person pronoun: I, me

[pronoun] (Kagoshima, dialect) first-person pronoun: I, me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 9

Kanji in this term
私
あて Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【あて】	[pronoun] (Kansai, feminine, dated) I; me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 10

Kanji in this term
私
わい Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わい】

[pronoun] (dialect, Kansai, Kagoshima; or Internet slang) I, me (first-person pronoun, mainly used by males)

[pronoun] you (second-person pronoun, used when addressing an equal or inferior)

[particle] (dated or dialectal) A particle used in the end of sentences to indicate admiration or emotion. Slightly stronger than わ (wa).

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 11

Kanji in this term
私
わし Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【儂わし】H

[pronoun] (mainly Western Japan) I, me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling (more common) of the above term.)

Etymology 12

Kanji in this term
私
わっし Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わっし】

[pronoun] (colloquial) first-person singular pronoun: I, me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 13

Kanji in this term
私
わっち Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わっち】

[pronoun] 私: (now dialectal) first-person singular pronoun

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 14

Kanji in this term
私
わたい Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わたい】

[pronoun] (archaic) I; me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 15

Kanji in this term
私
わちき Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わちき】

[pronoun] (archaic) I; me (used by prostitutes in the Edo period; sometimes used by tradesmen's daughters)

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 16

Kanji in this term
私
わて Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わて】	[pronoun] (archaic) I; me

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

Etymology 17

Kanji in this term
私
わらわ Grade: 6
irregular

For pronunciation and definitions of 私 – see the following entry.

【わらわ】

[pronoun] (archaic, women's speech, humble) I; me

[pronoun] (Can we verify⁽⁺⁾ this sense?) (modern fiction, women's speech) I; me (used by haughty women of the highest classes of society); usually accompanied by archaic speech styles

Alternative spelling
妾

(This term, 私, is an alternative spelling of the above term.)

References

^ Matsumura, Akira (1995) 大辞泉 [Daijisen] (in Japanese), First edition, Tokyo: Shogakukan, →ISBN
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Matsumura, Akira, editor (2006), 大辞林 [Daijirin] (in Japanese), Third edition, Tokyo: Sanseidō, →ISBN
↑ ^3.0 ^3.1 NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute, editor (1998), NHK日本語発音アクセント辞典 [NHK Japanese Pronunciation Accent Dictionary] (in Japanese), Tokyo: NHK Publishing, Inc., →ISBN

Korean

Hanja

私 (eumhun 사사 사 (sasa sa))

hanja form^? of 사 (“private, personal”)

Old Japanese

Etymology

This etymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at the Etymology scriptorium.
Particularly: “Cognate with first person singular pronoun 我 (wa)?”

Noun

私 (watakusi) (kana わたくし)

a personal or private matter

Derived terms

私田 (watakusida)

Descendants

Japanese: 私 (watakushi, watashi)

Vietnamese

Han character

私: Hán Nôm readings: tư, tây

private, personal

[DJS-1] Matsumura, Akira (1995) 大辞泉 [Daijisen] (in Japanese), First edition, Tokyo: Shogakukan, →ISBN

[DJR-2] 2.0 ^2.1 ^2.2 Matsumura, Akira, editor (2006), 大辞林 [Daijirin] (in Japanese), Third edition, Tokyo: Sanseidō, →ISBN

[NHK-3] 3.0 ^3.1 NHK Broadcasting Culture Research Institute, editor (1998), NHK日本語発音アクセント辞典 [NHK Japanese Pronunciation Accent Dictionary] (in Japanese), Tokyo: NHK Publishing, Inc., →ISBN

[1]

[2]

[3]