User:Kwékwlos/Possible Japonic relationship with Indo-European
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Given the increasingly obvious evidence that Japanese mythology can be identified with Indo-European prototypes (see Witzel's "Vala and Iwato" for one example, which theorizes that Pre-Japonic was adjacent to Pre-Vedic in Central Asia) and that the Yayoi may have received such influence (evident in the Karasuk-style bronze daggers associated with the ancestral Mumun culture in Korea) before migrating to Japan, as well as the tripartite hypothesis in Ryukyuan mythology, the ancient Yayoi people, whose language may have been para-Austroasiatic (a connection between Japonic and Austroasiatic is extremely unlikely based on lexical, morphological and grammatical evidence), must have acquired the Pre-Japonic language spoken by the Karasuk and Tagar cultures (which are mostly of Sintashta origin) from the eastward-moving Indo-European speaking migrants that introduced chariots to Shang China during the late 2nd millennium BCE.
Sound and accent laws are still preliminary; they should be formulated precisely in the future to uncover the relationship between Japonic with Indo-European (and more specifically Indo-Iranian), a largely unexplored prospect. The rest of this page assumes that Japonic was derived from an early Indo-Iranian dialect, originating from the Karasuk/Tagar and earlier Sintashta-Petrovka and Andronovo cultures, that was also possibly ancestral to Nuristani and had began to split from the continuum by 1500 BCE.
| Japanese (unless specified) | Proto-Japonic | Pre-Japonic | English | Sanskrit/Iranian/Nuristani | Proto-Indo-Iranian | Proto-Indo-European | Sound changes (Pre-Japonic to Proto-Japonic) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 脂, 油 (abura, “fat, grease, oil”) | *anpura (“fat, grease, oil”) 3.5b LLH < 4.6b LLLH | *Hāngnabr̥tám (“fat, grease (lit. borne with fat)”) | N/A | Sanskrit आञ्जन (ā́ñjana, “fat, ointment”), Ashkun anā́ (“ghee”), Kamkata-viri anū́, anév (“ghee”), Prasuni učó (“ghee”), Tregami ënó (“ghee”), Waigali ënëvřë (“ghee”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ānnabr̥tá 4.6 LLLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Hā́nǰa (stem *Hā́nǰan-), *Hā́nǰanam (“fat”) | *h₃éngʷn̥ (“butter, fat”) | *Hāngnabr̥tám > *Hannapr̥tám (devoicing, cluster simplification) > *anapurá (cluster simplification, laryngeal loss, and rhotacization) > *anpura (uanccented vowel loss after a nasal) |
This is a lexical item shared between Japonic and Nuristani, with perfectly regular correspondences (including cluster simplification, rhotacism, and syncope) and reflexes present in every Japonic and Nuristani language. |
| 霰 (arare, “hail”), dialectal 霰 (arane, “hail”) | *arare, *arane (“hail”) 3.1 HHH < 3.3 HLL | *Hásyanam (“hail”) | N/A | Sanskrit अस्यति (ásyati, “to throw”), Ashkun ašĩ́, Kamkata-viri ašíř, Prasuni íšĩ, Waigali ëšẽ (< Proto-Nuristani *ášyana 3.3 HLL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Hásyati (“to throw”) | N/A | *Hásyanam > *ásyanam (laryngeal loss) > *áryana (rhotacization) > *áryanya (> *arare, *arane) (glide spreading and dialectal nasal rhotacization) |
This is a lexical item shared between Japonic and Nuristani. Some Japanese dialects, especially to the northeast, have a form with a nasal, which is conservative of the old nasal. |
| 蟻 (ari, “ant”) | *ami, *ari (“ant”) (< *anri) 2.1 HH < 2.2 HL | *řámriH (“ant”) (< *wřámriH) | mire | Sanskrit वम्र (vamrá), Avestan 𐬨𐬀𐬊𐬌𐬭𐬌 (maoiri), 𐬨𐬀𐬊𐬌𐬭𐬍 (maoirī), Ashkun břamī́, Kamkata-viri řamík, Prasuni vómī, vōmigí (< Proto-Nuristani *wřámmikā 3.3 HLL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *marwíš (“ant”) | *morwís (“ant”) | *řámriH > *ámriH (loss of *ř) > *ámrī (laryngeal loss) > *amri (> *ami), *anri (> *ani, *ari) (dialectal cluster simplification and nasal rhotacization) |
Some variants in Japonic, such as Northern Amami-Oshima 蟻 (ami) and Oki-No-Erabu 蟻 (ani), imply a different development of the sequence */-mr-/ with compensatory high pitch. Indo-Aryan, Japonic, and Nuristani reflect the metathesis of the two labials. The Pre-Japonic form, with initial *ř regularly becoming zero, is also the source for the Kamkata-vari word. |
| ある (aru, “to be”) | *ari (“to be”) 2.II L- | *Hásti (“to be”) | is | Sanskrit अस्ति (ásti), Avestan 𐬀𐬯𐬙𐬍 (astī), 𐬀𐬯𐬙𐬌 (asti), Ashkun së-, Kamkata-viri asë́-, Prasuni so, -so, Tregami -s, Waigali -ës- (< Proto-Nuristani *asáti 3.II L-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Hásti (“to be”) | *h₁ésti (“to be”) | *Hásti > *ásti (laryngeal loss) > *ari (rhotacization and cluster simplification) |
Unproblematic. The sequence */-s-/ became */-r-/, as evidenced in the root ar- in Japanese. |
| 汗 (ase, “sweat”) | *asya (“sweat”) 2.5b LF < 3.7 LHL | *āswáydas (“sweat”) | sweat | Sanskrit स्वेद (svéda), Avestan 𐬓𐬀𐬉𐬜𐬀 (xᵛaēδa), Ashkun uspë́, Kamkata-viri ašpú, ašpë́, Waigali ašpë (< Proto-Nuristani *āsweda 3.5/3.7 LLH/LHL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *swáydas (“sweat”) | *sweyd- (“to sweat”) | *āswáydas > *aswáytas (devoicing and vowel changes) > *asíra (monophthongization and rhotacization) > *asya (loss of unaccented *r) |
Normally, rhotacization of */-s-/ is expected, but it was retained in the sequence */-sw-/. The sequence *-ya developed from *-ira < *-ayda via monophthongization and loss of unaccented */r/ < */d/, giving a 2.5 accent class. It is interesting to note that only Japonic and Nuristani share an innovation where a preverbal *ā- was added to the noun. |
| 近い (chikai, “close, near”) | *tika (“close, near”) 2.3a LL < 3.4 LLL < 3.5 LLH | *Hn̥tikás (“close, near”) | and | Sanskrit अन्तिक (antiká), Kamkata-viri akí, atkí (“there”), Prasuni ití, itī́ (“now”), Waigali ëtiv (“there”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ãtiká 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Hantikás (“close, near”) | *h₂énti (“front, near, opposite”) | *Hn̥tikás > *n̥tikás (laryngeal loss) > *n̥tiká (laryngeal loss) > *itiká (vocalization of syllabic consonant) > *tika (loss of unaccented vowel) |
The initial *Han- weakened to *Hn̥- and yielded a nasalized vowel which then denasalized and mimicked the next vowel or semivowel; the same can be said for Nuristani except that the reflex tends to be *ã > a or zero. |
| 出る (deru, “to go out”) | *intu (“to go out”) 2.II L- < 3.II L- | *n̥di-Háyti (“to go”) | N/A, yode | Sanskrit अध्येति (ádhyeti, “to turn the mind towards”), Ashkun dí- (“to go”), Kamkata-viri dí- (“to go”), Tregami dí- (“to go”), Waigali di- (“to go”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ãdéti 3.II L-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *ádʰiHayti (“to go”) | *h₁n̥dʰí (“below, under”) + *h₁éyti (“to go”) (root *h₁ey- (“to go”)) | *n̥di-Háyti > *n̥tyáyti (devoicing, laryngeal loss) > *n̥tyári (rhotacization) > *intári (glide simplification and (irregular) nasal spreading) > *intay (loss of unaccented *r) |
A lexical item shared by Japonic and Nuristani, with almost all of the languages having reflexes except Prasuni. The retention of the nasal is unexpected, and may point to a contamination by *inu (“to go”). The meaning in Japonic was narrowed from "to go" to "to go out". It also has a Sanskrit cognate, but its meaning is quite divergent (probably "to go using the mind" > "to turn the mind towards"). |
| 蒸かす (fukasu, “to steam”) | *pukasu (“to cook by steam”) 2.II L- < 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *pakwás (“cooked”) | N/A | Sanskrit पक्व (pakvá), Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬗𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (pacaiti, “to cook”), Ashkun pṓc̣ie- (“to be cooked”), Kamkata-viri pakë́-, pké- (“to ripen”) (< Proto-Nuristani *pakkéti (“to ripen”) 3.II L- < 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *páčati (“to cook”), *pačyátay (“to be cooked”) (past participle *pakwás) | *pekʷ- (“to cook, ripen”) | *pakwás > *pëkwás (vowel centralization) > *pukasu (*ë > *u, addition of causative and conclusive stem) |
Unproblematic. Derived from a causative of an earlier past participle. |
| 膨れる (fukureru, “to swell”) | *pukoru (“to puff, swell”) 3.II L- < 4.II L- | *puH-kr̥náwti (“to puff, blow”) | N/A | Sanskrit फूत्करोति (phūtkaroti, “to puff, blow”), Ashkun púk (“breath”), Waigali pük (“soul”) (< Proto-Nuristani *pūkká 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | Onomatopoeic + *kr̥náwti (“to do, make”) | Onomatopoeic | *p(ʰ)uH-kr̥náwti > *pūkr̥náwti (laryngeal loss, loss of aspiration, cluster simplification) > *pūkunári (*aw > *a, cluster simplification, vocalization of syllabic consonant, and rhotacization) > *pukoray (*un > *on followed by nasal rhotacization and loss of unaccented *r) |
There are many similar-sounding words within Indo-European, and they may ultimately turn out to be unrelated, independent onomatopoeic formations. |
| 降る (furu, “to fall”) (past 降った (futta)) | *puru (“to fall”) 2.II L- | *papt- (“to fall”, aor.) | feather | Sanskrit पतति (pátati, “to fall, fly”) (aor. अपप्तत् (ápaptat)) (compare Ancient Greek πίπτω (píptō, “to fall”)), Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬙𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (pataiti, “to fall, fly”), Kamkata-viri ptë́ (“fell”) (< Proto-Nuristani *pattaká 3.5 LLH, cited in Morgenstierne's Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan) | *pátati (“to fall, fly”) | *peth₂- (“to fly, spread out”) | *papt- > > *pëpt- (vowel centralization) > *pëtt- (cluster simplification) > *puru (*ë > *u, rhotacization and addition of conclusive ending) |
Unproblematic. In Japonic, */-pt-/ > */-tt-/, and then */-tt-/ > */-t-/ > /-r-/ when unaccented. |
| 二 (futa, “two”) | *puta (“two”) 2.1 HH < 2.4=1.1 LH=H | *HubáH dwáH (“both (lit. both two)”) | both, two | Sanskrit उभा (ubhā́), उभौ (ubháu, “both”), द्व (dvá, “two”), Avestan 𐬎𐬠𐬀 (uba, “both”), 𐬛𐬎𐬎𐬀 (duua, “two”), Ashkun vëdú (“both”), Kamkata-viri vedü, ṓdü, avdiú (“both”), Waigali übẽ (“both”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ubā́ duwā́ 2.4=2.4 LH=LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *HubʰáH (“both”, du.) + *dwáH (“two”) | *h₂ubʰóh₁ (“both”, du.) + *dwóh₁ (“two”) | *HubáH dwáH > *upë̄ twā́ (devoicing, laryngeal loss and vowel centralization) > *puta (*ë > *u, glide simplification and loss of unaccented *u) |
In Japonic, there was a massive replacement of numerals as many bear little to no resemblance to Indo-European numerals and often have pairs that involve vowel changes, but this one, if cognate with Nuristani, should contain the old word for "two". But compare Okinawan 二ち (tāchi) (otherwise explained by the loss of initial *pu). Note also the disappearance of unaccented initial */u/, which gave a compensatory high pitch. |
| 葉 (ha, “leaf”) | *pa (“leaf”) 1.2 H(L) < 2.2 HL | *párnam (“feather, leaf, wing”) | fern | Sanskrit पर्ण (parṇá), Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬥𐬀 (parəna), Ashkun pā́r (“leaf”), Kamkata-viri pór, přór (“leaf”), Prasuni párëg (“leaf”) (< Proto-Nuristani *pā́ra 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *parnám (“feather, leaf, wing”) | *pornóm (“feather, fern, leaf, wing”) | *párnam > *pana (cluster simplification) > *pã (loss of unaccented *na with nasalization) > *pa (denasalization) |
Unproblematic. Polysemy "feather, leaf, wing" is clearly evident, and the sequence */-rn-/ seems to have given way to */-n-/ which was lost in unaccented position and led to the 1.2 accent pattern. Note the common Japonic-Nuristani shift to initial accent, witnessed by the Ashkun long vowel. |
| 早い (hayai, “early, quick-witted”), 速さ (hayasa, “speed”) | *paya (“early”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *sp(ʰ)aHyás (“quick, speedy”) | speed | Sanskrit स्फायते (sphā́yate, “to expand, swell”) | *spʰaH- (“to expand, swell”) | *speh₁- (“to prosper, succeed”) | *sp(ʰ)aHyás > *paHyás (aspiration loss and loss of initial *s before a stop) > *paya (laryngeal loss) |
Semantically, the change "to prosper, succeed" > "fast; speed" is attested in other IE branches, such as Germanic. Initial */s-/ > */∅-/ when preceding a stop consonant. |
| 鼻 (hana, “nose”) | *pana (“nose”) 2.1 HH < 4.11 LLHL | *upanáHsaH (“nose”) | nose | Sanskrit नस् (nás), नासा (nā́sā), Old Persian 𐎴𐎠𐏃𐎶 (n-a-h-m /nāham/), Ashkun nasuṛí, Kamkata-viri nós, nús (“boulder, large rock”), Prasuni nës, nas, Tregami nás, Waigali nas (< Proto-Nuristani *nā́sā 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *náHsaH (“nose”) | *néh₂s (“nose”) | *upanáHsaH > *upanáHsëH (vowel centralization) > *upanā́së̄ (laryngeal loss) > *upanáru (*ë > *u and rhotacization) > *pana (loss of unaccented *u and *ru) |
Most Japonic body parts use an additional preverb *upa-, a situation that happens in Prasuni. |
| 柱 (hashira, “pillar”) | *parira, *pasira (“pillar”) 3.5a LLH < 4.6 LLLH | *upastuHnáH (“pillar”) | stand | Sanskrit स्थूणा (sthū́ṇā), Avestan 𐬯𐬙𐬏𐬥𐬀 (stūna), Ashkun istṹ, Kamkata-viri štü̃́, štiú, Prasuni üstyṹ, Tregami štú, Waigali uštün (< Proto-Nuristani *stūnā́ 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *stʰuHnáH (“pillar”) | *steh₂- (“to stand”) | *upastuHnáH > *upatuHnáH (loss of initial *s before a stop) > *upatūnā́ (laryngeal loss) > *uparūná (rhotacization) > *parira, *pasira (*ū > *i, nasal rhoticization and irregular dialectal *s) |
Ryukyuan forms continue *parira, while Japanese has innovative s, probably by analogy such as *pas-/*par- "to go". The presence of nasal rhoticization, however, indicates that a penultimate rhotic was formerly present. Note the apparently irregular low pitch of the first syllable, probably conditioned by *ū. |
| 屁 (he, “fart”) | *pya (“fart”) 1.3 L(H) < 2.5 LF | *pr̥dàs (“fart”) | fart | Sanskrit पर्द (parda), Avestan 𐬞𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬜𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (pərəδaiti, “to fart”), Ashkun pidíṅ (“silent fart”) (< Proto-Nuristani *piddinka 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *pard- (“to fart”) | *perd- (“to fart”) | *pr̥dàs > *pirà (vocalization of syllabic consonant and rhotacization) > *pya (loss of unaccented *r) |
The preform accounts for the loss of unaccented */-r-/ and subsequent simplification of the vowel sequence in Japonic. The Japonic-Nuristani 2.5 accent pattern seems to imply a nasal in Ashkun and more generally in Nuristani, also evident within Japonic in Yaeyama 屁 (pin) (Hateruma dialect). |
| 肘 (hiji, “elbow”) | *penti (“elbow”) 2.2 HL < 3.4 LLH < 4.6 LLLH | *upařatníš (“elbow”) | ell, elbow | Sanskrit अरत्नि (aratní), Avestan 𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬚𐬥𐬀 (arəθna), Ashkun oṛíṅ, Kamkata-viri ařë́, Prasuni vúžë, vúẓo, Waigali ëvřë (< Proto-Nuristani *ařani 3.4 LLL, *upařani 4.5 LLLL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Haratníš (“elbow”) | *Heh₃l- (“to bend, bow”) | *upařatníš > *upantíš (loss of *ř, metathesis and vowel simplification) > *penti (loss of unaccented *u and metaphony) |
The evolution of this word, shared by Nuristani, is complicated, but */-tn-/ > */-nt-/ via metathesis, then loss of *ř, giving *upantíš. As in "nii-", metaphony of */a/ to */e/ > /i/ occurred and initial unaccented */u/ was lost giving an initial high pitch, resulting in the present-day Japanese form. |
| 広い (hiroi, “broad, wide”) | *pirə (“broad, wide”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *pr̥tʰúš (“broad, wide”) | flat (< Old Norse) | Sanskrit पृथु (pṛthú), Avestan 𐬞𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬚𐬎 (pərəθu) | *pr̥tʰúš (“broad, wide”) | *pl̥th₂ús (“broad, flat”) | *pr̥tʰúš > *pr̥túš (loss of aspiration) > *pr̥tə (Arisaka's law) > *pirə (vocalization of syllabic consonant and rhotacization) |
Unproblematic, but Arisaka's law applied because *r̥ was pronounced as */ər/, and then /-rt-/ became /-r-/ after a labial stop. |
| 今 (ima, “now”) | *ima, *ina (“now”) (< *i nuna (“this present time”)) 2.4 LH < 1.1=2.4 L=LH < 2.4=2.4 LH=LH | *Hiyám nuHnám (“this present time”) | now | Sanskrit नु (nú), नू (nū́), नूनम् (nūnám), Avestan 𐬥𐬏 (nū), 𐬥𐬏𐬭𐬇𐬨 (nūrə̄m), Ashkun yanū̃́ (“today”), Waigali önũ (“today”) (< Proto-Nuristani *iyá nūná 2.4=2.4 LH=LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *nú, *núH, *nuHnám (“now”) | *nu (“now”) | *Hiyám nuHnám > *iyá nūná (laryngeal loss) > *i nūná (*iya > *i) > *ĩma/*ĩna (loss of unaccented *nū with nasalization of preceding vowel and dialectal *n > *m > *ima, *ina (denasalization) |
Ryukyuan clearly extended a base *ina with *ma. Proto-Japonic *i < *Hiyám (compare Proto-Indo-Iranian *Hayám (“this”)) < Proto-Indo-European *ís represents an old proximal deictic which disappeared in all modern Japonic languages. Tottori dialect has 今 (“inma”) which may reflect the now-syncopated initial syllable of the second word. Ryukyuan has n instead of m, likely because *ū > *i did not cause *n > *m unlike Japanese. Syncopation of */-ja/ after */-i-/ can also be seen in "nii-". |
| いる (iru, “to be, exist”) | *wu (“to be, exist, sit”) (stem *wor-) 1.I H- < 2.I H- | *Hwā́sa (“is being, dwelling, existing”, perf.) | was | Sanskrit वसति (vásati, “to dwell, live, stay”) (perfect उवास (uvā́sa)), Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬢𐬵𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (vaŋhaiti, “to dwell, live, stay”), Kamkata-viri vós- (“to be, exist”) (past vósi (“were”)) (< Proto-Nuristani *wā́sa 2.I H-, cited in W. Ivanow's A Specimen of Bashgali from Kamdesh) | *Hwásati (“to dwell, live, stay”) (perfect *HuHwā́sa) | *h₂wes- (“to dwell, live, stay”) | *Hwā́sa > *wā́sa (laryngeal loss) > *wósa (unaccented *ā́ > *ó) > *wori (> *wu) (rhotacization and analogical conclusive/infinitive ending with variable loss of unaccented *r) |
Within Japanese, there is a dialectal form おる (oru) and Proto-Ryukyuan has *wori. In Japonic and Nuristani, the common ancestral form *Hwā́sa was a contracted form of *HuHwā́sa and the meaning took on an existential one, parallel to the Germanic cognates. Accented *ā́ became a rounded vowel *ɔ, then developed into *o or *u, as in Kamkata-viri. |
| 入る (iru, “to enter, go in”) | *iru (“to enter, go in”) 2.I H- | *Háyti (“to go”) | yode | Sanskrit एति (éti, “to go”), Avestan 𐬀𐬉𐬙𐬍 (aētī, “to go”), Kamkata-viri yé-, e- (“to go”), Waigali e- (“to go”) (< Proto-Nuristani *éti 2.I H-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Háyti (“to go”) | *h₁éyti (“to go”) (root *h₁ey- (“to go”)) | *Háyti > *áyti (laryngeal loss) > *iru (monophthongization, rhotacization and addition of conclusive ending) |
The initial diphthong simplifies to an */i/ in Japonic, along with a semantic change from "to go" to "to enter, go in". |
| 香 (ka, “fragrance, smell”) | *ka (“fragrance, smell”) 1.1 H(H) < 2.2 HL | *gándas (“fragrance, smell”) | N/A | Sanskrit गन्ध (gandhá), Avestan 𐬔𐬀𐬌𐬧𐬙𐬌 (gaiṇti, “stench”), Ashkun gṓn, gún, Prasuni gúndu (< Proto-Nuristani *gánda 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *g(ʰ)andʰás (“fragrance, smell”) | N/A | *gándas > *kántës (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *káru (*ë > u and unaccented *nt > *r) > *ka (loss of unaccented *r) > |
Verbal derivatives in Japonic, such as 嗅ぐ (kagu, “to smell”) and Kyushu dialect 嗅む (kazamu, kazumu, “to smell”), which exhibit voicing of the second consonant, indicate the presence of a now-syncopated nasal component, a very likely remnant of the */nd/ present in the etymon. The Prasuni form is a loanword due to preserved *g- and *-nd-. |
| 壁 (kabe, “wall”) | *kampe, *kumpe (“wall”) 2.1 HH < 2.2 HL | *kyáHwyas (“wall”) | N/A | Ashkun čā́, Kamkata-viri čó (< Proto-Nuristani *čyā́wa 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | N/A | N/A | *kyáHwyas > *kyáwHyas/*kyë́wHyas (laryngeal metathesis and dialectal vowel centralization) > *kampya/*kumpya (*ë > *u, glide simplification, *wH > *mp) |
A uniquely shared item between Japonic and Nuristani. Ryukyuan forms such as Okinawan 壁 (kubi) support the presence of the alternation *a/*u in the Japonic etymon. Notable is the unconditioned change of *-Hw- and *-wH- > *-wH- as *-mp-. The Nuristani forms, according to Turner have been adduced to come from *čā́ya, but this wouldn't explain the Ashkun palatal, which is regular if it came from earlier *čy < *ky. |
| 陰, 影 (kage, “shade, shadow”) | *kanka, *kanke (“shadow”) 2.5a LF < 3.5 LLH | *skaHyikáH (“shade, shadow”) | shade, shadow | Sanskrit छाया (chāyā́), Avestan 𐬀𐬯𐬀𐬌𐬌𐬀 (asaiia, “shadowless”), Ashkun nīčë́, Kamkata-viri ćavẽ́, ćavë́, Prasuni vućá, Waigali čëkërë, uča (< Proto-Nuristani *scāyá 2.4 LH, *scāyiká 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *śćaHyáH (“shade, shadow”) | *(s)ḱeh₃ih₂ (“shade, shadow”), *(s)ḱeh₃- (“darkness, shadow”) | *skaHyikáH > *kāyikā́ (laryngeal loss and loss of initial *s before a stop) > *kanka, *kankya (loss of unaccented *yi followed by nasalization and (possibly) glide metathesis) |
There is a combining form 陰, 影 (kaga). The Indo-European sequence *sḱ- should in fact, according to Lubotsky's Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European *sk in Indo-Iranian, be reconstructed as *sk-, which would also explain the retention of Japonic *k-. Sporadic nasalization of the second velar occurred when the sequence *-yi- syncopated, creating a 2.5 accent class, a development found also in Indo-Aryan and Kamkata-vari reflexes of the same word. |
| 蟹 (kani, “crab”) | *kani (“crab”) 2.1 HH < 2.2 HL | *kánkriš (“crab”) | N/A | Sanskrit कर्कट (karkaṭa) | *karkr- (“crab”) | *karkr- (“crab”) | *kánkriš > *kánri (*k-kr > *k-r) > *kani (cluster simplification) |
For the initial dissimilatory nasal, compare Latin cancer. Note also the dissimilation *k-kr > *k-r, found also in "kuruma". Notably, Koreanic borrowings from Peninsular Japonic (Jeju 깅이 (ging'i, “crab”)) retain the second velar element. There is a lot of disagreement between the relationship of these words within Indo-European. |
| 肩 (kata, “shoulder”) | *kata (“shoulder”) 2.4b LH | *kandás (“shoulder”) | N/A | Sanskrit स्कन्ध (skandhá, “shoulder, tree trunk”), Ashkun këndë́, Kamkata-viri kanó, kanë́, Waigali kënë (< Proto-Nuristani *kandakā́ 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *skandʰás (“shoulder, tree trunk”) | *(s)kendʰ- (“to jump”) | *kandás > *kattá (nasal absorption) > *kata (degemination) |
The Nuristani forms meaning "tree" (see "ki") are all diminutives of *kandā́ < *kandáH, and the Kamkata-vari forms descending from *kandá < *kandás from mean "corpse", likely from an earlier meaning "trunk, shoulder". |
| 川 (kawa, “river”) | *kapa (< *karapa) 2.2 HL < 3.3 HLL < 2.2=2.2 HL=HL | *gára-Hā́pas (“river (lit. valley waters)”) | N/A | Ashkun golabó, Kamkata-viri galṓ, gulë́vë, Prasuni gulave, guláu, Waigali golav (< Proto-Nuristani *gála-ā́pa 2.2=2.2 HL=HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | N/A | N/A + *h₂ep- (“water”) | *gára-Hā́pas > *kára-ápa (devoicing and laryngeal loss) > *kapa (loss of unaccented *r and possible metathesis) |
Another common Japonic and Nuristani lexical innovation. The */r/ disappeared in this word, but see Proto-Ryukyuan *kawara, which possibly reflects *kawa-para "river-field", but the word for "field" in Proto-Ryukyuan is *paru. |
| 毛 (ke, “hair”) | *kay (“hair”) 1.1 H(H) < 2.2 HL | *káyćnas (“hair”) | N/A | Sanskrit केश (kéśa), Avestan 𐬔𐬀𐬉𐬯𐬎 (gaēsu, “curls”), Ashkun ćë́s (“markhor hair”), Kamkata-viri kéć (“markhor hair”), Tregami kẽ́ć, Waigali kẽć (< Proto-Nuristani *kéca, *kénca 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *káyćas (“hair”) | N/A | *káyćnas > *káyna (cluster simplification) > *kãy (unaccented nasal loss with nasalization) > *kay (denasalization) |
An Indo-Iranian substrate term. The Japonic, Tregami, and Waigali forms reflect a nasal alternative. |
| 木, 樹 (ki, “tree”) | *kəy (“tree”) 1.3 L(H) < 2.5 LF | *kandìH (“tree”) | N/A | Sanskrit स्कन्ध (skandhá, “shoulder, tree trunk”), Ashkun këndë́, Kamkata-viri kanó, kanë́, Waigali kënë (< Proto-Nuristani *kandakā́ 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *skandʰás (“shoulder, tree trunk”) | *(s)kendʰ- (“to jump”) | *kandìH > *këntī̀ (devoicing, laryngeal loss and vowel centralization) > *kəri (non-raised *ë > *ə and rhotacization of unaccented *-nt-) > *kəy (loss of unaccented *r) |
The basic word for "tree" in Japonic and Nuristani (see the etymologically related "kata"). The Nuristani forms are all diminutives of *kandā́ < *kandáH. |
| 切る (kiru, “to cut”) | *kiru 2.II L- < 3.II L- | *skʲinátˢti (“to cut”) | shit | Sanskrit छिनत्ति (chinátti), Waigali ćinë- (< Proto-Nuristani *cinnáti 3.II L-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *śćinátˢti (“to cut”) | *skinédti (“shade, shadow”) (root *skeyd- (“to divide, split”)) | *skʲinátˢti > *kinátti (depalatalization, loss of *s before a stop and *tˢt > *tt) > *kinë́tti (vowel centralization) > *kinúri (*ë > *u, geminate simplification and rhotacization) > *kiru (nasal rhotacization and replacement by conclusive ending) |
Like "shiru" below, which has the exact same active/mediopassive pair that allows for a nasal-infix derivation, the shift */-n-/ > /-r-/ also occurred in this word. |
| 頃 (koro, “season, time”) | *kərə (“season, time”) 2.2 HL < 3.3 HLL | *gáras (“warm season, warm time”) (genitive singular *gárasya) | warm | Sanskrit हरस् (háras, “fire, flame”), घर्म (gharmá, “heat, warmth”), Avestan 𐬔𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬨𐬀 (garəma, “heat, warmth”), Ashkun gërësā́r (“daytime”), Kamkata-viri garéš, gëréš (“midday”), gajár, gërǰór (“daytime”), Waigali gërëš (“midday”) (< Proto-Nuristani *garaša 3.3/3.7 HLL/LHL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *gʰar- (“hot, warm”) | *gʷʰer- (“hot, warm”) | *gárasya > *kárësya (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *kərərə (Arisaka's law followed by non-raised *ë > *ə) > *kərə (loss of unaccented *r) |
A uniquely shared lexical item in Japonic and Nuristani. In Japonic, a semantic shift occurred from "warm season, warm time" to "season, time", which can be compared with Proto-Indo-European *semh₂- (“summer, year”) > Sanskrit समा (sámā, “season, year”). |
| 殺す (korosu, “to kill”) | *kərəsu (“to hit, kill, strike”) (< *kəru (“to be killed”)) 3.I H- < 2.I H- | *gʲánti (“to hit, kill, strike”) | bane | Sanskrit हन्ति (hánti, “to hit, kill, strike”), Avestan 𐬘𐬀𐬌𐬧𐬙𐬌 (jaiṇti, “to hit, kill, strike”), Kamkata-viri jaňë́-, jařé- (“to kill”), Prasuni žnü- (“to kill”), Waigali ẓã- (“to kill”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ǰánati 3.I H-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *ǰʰánti (“to hit, kill, strike”) | *gʷʰen- (“to hit, strike”) | *gánti > *kë́nti (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *kë́ri (Arisaka's law from *kënta- > *këntë-, rhotacization) > *kəru (> *kərəsu) (non-raised *ë > *ə and addition of (causative) and conclusive ending) |
Ryukyuan cognates also have the meaning "to hit, strike", and the Proto-Japonic word may have been an s-causative derived from an unattested athematic root verb (according to Thorpe 1983). Otherwise unproblematic except for the shift */-nt-/ > /-r-/, probably in unaccented position. Japonic did not participate in the "law of palatals", and there is evidence that PIIr. had not yet undergone the shift on basis of Nuristani (see Strand 2022). |
| 事 (koto, “act, thing”) | *kətə (“act, thing”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *kr̥tám (“action, deed, work”) (nominal of *kr̥tás (“done, made”)) | N/A | Sanskrit कृत (kṛtá, “done, made”) (nominal sense "action, deed, work" attested), Avestan 𐬐𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬙𐬀 (kərəta, “done, made”), Ashkun křë́ (“done”), Kamkata-viri křë́ (“done”), Waigali kňe (“done”) (< Proto-Nuristani *kr̥tá 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *kr̥tás (“done, made”) | *kʷer- (“to do, make”) | *kr̥tám > *kr̥të́m (vowel centralization) > *kətə (Arisaka's law followed by non-raised *ë > *ə and cluster simplification) |
Unproblematic. In Japonic, this word has an essentially nominal meaning, rather than past participial as in other Indo-Iranian languages, though the accent implies an earlier adjective survived in Proto-Japonic. Arisaka's law applied because *r̥ was pronounced as */ər/, but */t/ was conserved here because the initial consonant is not a labial stop. |
| 首 (kubi, “neck”) | *kumpi (“collar, neck”) 2.1 HH < 2.4 LH < 3.7 LHL | *griHwíyaH (“neck”) | N/A | Sanskrit ग्रीवा (grīvā́), Avestan 𐬔𐬭𐬍𐬎𐬎𐬁 (grīuuā), Ashkun gřṓṛ, Kamkata-viri géř, gë́ř, gřë́k, Prasuni gīk, Waigali grëv (< Proto-Nuristani *grīwí 2.2/2.4 HL/LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *griHwáH (“neck”) | *gʷriHwéh₂ (“mane, neck, throat”) | *griHwíyaH > *gr̥HwíyaH (irregular *ri > *r̥) > *gr̥wHíyaH (laryngeal metathesis) > *kr̥wHíyaH (devoicing) > *kumpíyā (*wH > *mp and vocalization of syllabic consonant) > *kumpi (*iya > *i) |
The preform is unique to Japonic and Nuristani, and Japonic reflects some influence from *gʷerh₃- (“to devour, eat, swallow”), especially the zero-grade form *gʷr̥h₃- > *gr̥H-. Notable is the unconditioned change of *-Hw- and *-wH- > *-wH- as *-mp- (as in "kabe") and irregular initial high pitch. |
| 黒 (kuro), 黒い (kuroi, “black”) | *kuro (“black”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *kr̥šnás (“black”) | N/A | Sanskrit कृष्ण (kṛṣṇá) | *kr̥šnás (“black”) | *kr̥snós (“black”) | *kr̥šnás > *kr̥šnë́s (vowel centralization) > *kr̥në́ (cluster simplification) > *kuro (rounding of central vowel followed by vocalization of syllabic consonant and nasal rhotacization) |
The final vowel clearly influenced its antonym (see "shiro"). The medial consonant cluster underwent extensive reduction to /-r-/, but is retained with epenthesis in the loanword doublet クリシュナ (Kurishuna, “Krishna”). |
| 車 (kuruma, “car, wheel”) | *karuma, *kuruma (“car, wheel”) (< *karu, *kuru) 2.1=1.1 HH=H < 2.2 HL | *kʲákram (“wheel”) | wheel | Sanskrit चक्र (cakrá), Avestan 𐬗𐬀𐬑𐬭𐬀 (caxra), Kamkata-viri čkrí (“polo ball”) (< Proto-Nuristani *čakrī́ 2.4 LH, cited in Sten Konow's Notes on the Classification of Bashgali) | *čakrám (“wheel”) | *kʷekʷlóm (“wheel”) | *kʲákram > *kákrëm, *kúkrëm (variable vowel change and vowel centralization) > *karu, *kuru (> *karuma, *kuruma) (*ë > *u where Arisaka's law does not apply and then *k-kr > *k-r with addition of *-ma) |
The first vowel is irregular, but the dialect of Takara Island has 車 (karuma) with expected vowel, while the Ryukyuan forms are all loanwords from Japanese. Note the dissimilation *k-kr > *k-r, found also in "kani". |
| 孫 (mago, “grandchild”) | *mmanka (“grandchild”) 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH < 3.5 LLH | *napātkás (“grandson”) | neve | Sanskrit नपात् (nápāt, “grandson”), Avestan 𐬥𐬀𐬞𐬁𐬝 (napāt̰, “grandson”), Ashkun nëvā́ (“grandson”), Kamkata-viri navó, nëvók (“grandson”), Prasuni nëvë́ (“grandson”), Waigali nëvã (“grandson”) (< Proto-Nuristani *napāká, *napākká 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *nápāts (“grandson”) | *népōts (“grandson”) | *napātkás > *nëpakás (cluster simplification and vowel centralization) > *nupaká (*ë > *u) > *mw̃anká (syncope of initial vowel and unaccented *p > *w̃ and subsequent nasal spreading) > *mmanka (*w̃ > *m) |
Ryukyuan cognates support a final *-a, which means that the final -o was taken from 子 (ko, “child”). For the evolution of this word, the first unaccented vowel was weakened and led to syncope, while unaccented */-p-/ became a nasalized */-w̃-/ which later became */-m-/ (which could also explain the variance between -b- and -m- in Japonic), but not before spreading the nasal to the following */-k-/ < */-tk-/. |
| 混ぜる (mazeru, “to mix”) | *mansu (“to mix”) 2.II L- < 4.II L- | *mimićšáti (“to mix”) | mix | Sanskrit मेक्षयति (mekṣáyati), मिमिक्षति (mímikṣati), Avestan 𐬨𐬌𐬥𐬀𐬱𐬙𐬌 (minašti), Ashkun mišā́- (“to eat (something mixed)”), Kamkata-viri miṣṓ- (“to eat dairy products with bread”), Prasuni -mši- (“to mix”), (< Proto-Nuristani *miššéti, *miššā́peti 4.II L-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *mayć- (“to mix”) | *meyḱ- (“to mix”) | *mimićšáti > *mamićšáti (irregular vowel change) > *mamiććáti (assimilation) > *mamisári (*ć > *s, geminate simplification and rhotacization) > *mansu (unaccented vowel loss after a nasal and replacement by conclusive form) |
The initial vowel is irregular for expected **i, probably taken from the full-grade. The syncope of the unaccented sequence *-mićš- resulted in a prenasalized *-ns-. |
| 身 (mi, “body, flesh, meat”) | *muy (“body, flesh, meat”) 1.1 H(H) < 2.2 HL < 1.1 H | *mā́ms (“flesh, meat”) | N/A | Sanskrit मांस् (mā́ṃs), मांस (māṃsá), Ashkun mós, Kamkata-viri mús, Prasuni musuk, Waigali mus (< Proto-Nuristani *mā̃sá 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *mā́ms, *māmsám (“flesh, meat”) | *mḗms (“flesh, meat”) | *mā́ms > *móms (accented *ā́ > ó) > *mómri (rhotacization and prothetic *i) > *múri (loss of nasal) > *muy (loss of accented *r) |
There are borrowings into Koreanic (Korean 몸 (mom, “body”)). In this case, the evolution of the medial consonant cluster in Japonic was probably */-ms-/ > */-mr-/ > */-r-/ with rhotacization and the subsequent loss of */-m-/ and later */-r-/. |
| モズ (mozu, “bull-headed shrike”) | *monsu (“shrike, songbird”) 2.4 LH < 3.5 LLH | *mr̥gnaHćáH (“bird”) | N/A | Sanskrit मृग (mṛgá, “wild animal”), Avestan 𐬨𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬖𐬀 (mərəγa, “bird”), Ashkun niṅasë́ (“bird”), Kamkata-viri mřaṅćë́, mřëṅáć (“bird”), Prasuni maṅćṹ (“markhor kid”), nĩź (“bird”), Waigali niṅëćë (“bird”) (< Proto-Nuristani *mr̥ngācá (“bird”) 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *mr̥gás (“forest animal”) + *-ā́ćš (“animal and plant suffix”) | N/A | *mr̥gnaHćáH > *mr̥nnaćë̄́ (laryngeal loss, assimilation and vowel centralization) > *monsu (*ë > *u, *un > *on and unaccented vowel loss after a nasal) |
The correspondences are regular, but the alternative Prasuni and Southern Nuristani forms went through some changes. In both branches, *mr̥gás acquired an extra */n/, yielding *mr̥gnás before being suffixed. |
| 名 (na, “name”) | *na (“name”) 1.2 H(L) < 2.2 HL | *Hnā́mn̥ (“name”) | name | Sanskrit नामन् (nā́man), Avestan 𐬥𐬁𐬨𐬀𐬥 (nāman), Ashkun nā́m, Kamkata-viri nóm, núm, Prasuni nom, nëmë́, Waigali nam (< Proto-Nuristani *nā́ma 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Hnā́ma (“name”) | *h₁nómn̥ (“name”) | *Hnā́mn̥ > *Hnā́mun (vocalization of syllabic consonant) > *námu (accented *ā́ > *á before *u and laryngeal loss) > *nã (loss of unaccented *mu with nasalization) > *na (denasalization) |
Unproblematic. The second syllable syncopated in Japonic, but traces are left in the Kansai accent pattern and Yaeyama 名 (nan) (Hateruma dialect). |
| ない (nai, “not”), 無い (nai, “not”) | *na (“no, not”) 1.3 L(H) < 1.1/1.3 H/L | *ná (“no, not”) | no, not | Sanskrit न (ná), Avestan 𐬥𐬀 (na), Kamkata-viri ná, në, Prasuni na, Waigali në (< Proto-Nuristani *ná 1.1/1.3 H/L, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *ná (“no, not”) | *ne (“no, not”) | *ná > *na (no change) |
According to Twitter user cppig1995 (https://twitter.com/cppig1995/status/1483636471081111556), PJ very likely had an independent negative *na attached before a verb, but the loss of the vowel moved it to a position after the verb. Old Japanese still attests it with the negative imperative na-X-sö, where X can be any verb. |
| Old Japanese 土 (ni, nita, “clay, earth”), Miyako みぃた (mta), Okinawan んちゃ (ncha), Yaeyama んた (nta), Yonaguni んた (nta, “earth”) | *mi, *mita (“clay, earth”) 1.3 L(H), 2.4b LH < 2.5 LF, 2.4 LH | *mr̥dìH, *mr̥tˢtáH (“clay, earth, soil”) | mold | Sanskrit मृद् (mṛ́d), मृत्तिका (mṛ́ttikā), Ashkun míč, Kamkata-viri muří, mřëí, Prasuni mire, Waigali muk (< Proto-Nuristani *miččā́ 2.4 LH, *mr̥dikā 3.4/3.5 LLL/LLH, *mr̥kkā́ 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *mŕ̥ts | *meld- (“clay, soil, earth”) | *mr̥dìH, *mr̥tˢtáH > *mr̥tī̀, *mr̥ttā́ (devoicing, laryngeal loss and *tˢt > tt) > *miri, *mita (vocalization of syllabic consonant, geminate/glide simplification and (partial) rhotacization) > *mi, *mita (loss of unaccented *r and subsequent vowel simplification) |
Not attested in modern standard or dialectal Japanese, if one excludes Hachijō 土 (mija). Old Japanese shows an innovative n in contrast to other Japonic reflexes. |
| 新 (nii-, “new”) | *nipi (“new”) 2.1 HH < 2.4 LH < 3.7 LHL | *nawíyas (“new”) | new | Sanskrit नव (náva), नव्य (návya, “new”), Avestan 𐬥𐬀𐬎𐬎𐬀 (nauua, “new”), Ashkun nuŋë́, Kamkata-viri nuĩ́, núi, Waigali nuŋë (< Proto-Nuristani *nawì 2.5 LF, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *náwas, *náwyas (“new”) | *néwos, *néwyos (“new”) | *nawíyas > *nawí (*iya > *i) > *nipi (glide fortition, syncope of initial vowel and later epenthesis) |
In modern Japanese, 新しい (atarashii) has essentially replaced the word aside from proper names. Sound changes include fortition and subsequent loss */-w-/ > /-p-/ > /-∅-/, syncope of the first vowel and later epenthesis (which accounts for the Ryukyuan forms starting in *m-), and loss of the final syllable after */i/. Nuristani seems to have the 2.5 accent class, probably under the same circumstances as "kage" above. |
| 起きる (okiru, “to get up, rise, wake up”) | *əku (“to get up, rise, wake up”) 2.II L- < 3.II L- | *ud-kárš- (“to draw out, raise”, aor.) | N/A | Sanskrit कर्षति (kárṣati, “to drag, draw, plow”), उत्कर्षति (utkarṣati, “to draw out, raise”), Avestan 𐬐𐬀𐬭𐬱𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (karšaiti, “to drag, draw, plow”), Ashkun ōkëṣë́- (“to draw (water)”), Kamkata-viri úkṣō- (“to begin, draw (water), pull up”), Waigali okṣë- (“to draw (water)”) (< Proto-Nuristani *úkkaršati 4.I H-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *káršati (“to drag, draw, plow”) | *kʷels- (“to drag, pull”) | *ud-kárš- > *ukkë́š- (cluster simplification and vowel centralization) > *ëkkë́r- (Arisaka's law and rhotacization) > *əku (non-raised *ë > *ə, geminate simplification, reanalysis of root after loss of unaccented *r and addition of conclusive form) |
The sequence *-rš- became *-r-, which was lost when unaccented . Subsequently, the verb *ud-kárš-ti became *əkər-i > *əkəy > *əke > oki-. Semantically, the original sense "to draw out" was lost, with only the secondary sense "to raise, rise" surviving into Japonic. Other Indo-Aryan cognates also have the same restricted meaning. |
| 大蛇 (orochi, “large snake (in Shinto)”) | *wərəti (“large snake (mythological)”) 2.3=1.3 LL=L < 2.4=2.4 LH=LH | *wārtrá-daywás (“obstacle god”) | N/A | Sanskrit वृत्र (vṛtrá, “obstacle, name of a serpent (in Hinduism)”), Avestan 𐬬𐬆𐬭𐬆𐬚𐬭𐬀 (vərəθra, “obstacle”), Ashkun vátr (“wattle”), Kamkata-viri vótr (“wattle”), Waigali vatr (“wattle fence”) (< Proto-Nuristani *wārtrá 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *wr̥trás (“obstacle”) | *wer- (“to cover, watch”) | *wārtrá-daywás > *wartrë́-taywás (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *wërë́-tiyá (Arisaka's law, cluster/glide simplification and monophthongization) > *wərəti (non-raised *ë > *ə and *iya > *i) |
While the second component is easily identifiable as "spirit", the first component is problematic. Compare also Okinawan むるち (Muruchi, “large snake (in Yara, Kadena)”) with irregular first consonant. This etymology assumes that the first word is related to the Nuristani words for "fence" and the Indo-Iranian name of the mythological serpent, which would corroborate the link between Vedic and Japanese mythologies. |
| Miyako 岩 (pїshi, “rock”) | *piri (“rock”) 2.1 HH < 2.4 LH | *pr̥šíH (“rock”) | fell (< Old Norse) | Sanskrit पाषी (pāṣī́, “stone”), Ashkun paṣú, Kamkata-viri paṣǘ, paṣí (“mountainside, slope”) (< Proto-Nuristani *pāršī́ 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *paršíH, *pr̥šíH (“rock, stone”) | *pels- (“cliff, rock”) | *pr̥šíH > *pr̥šī́ (laryngeal loss) > *piri (vocalization of syllabic consonant and rhotacization) |
For the sound correspondence, compare Miyako 平良 (Pїsara, “Hirara”) (< *pirara 3.1 HHH < *pr̥šántam 3.7 LHL, likely related to Prasuni Uṣǘt (“Pashki”) < Proto-Nuristani *pāršánta 3.7 LHL). Compare also Proto-Japonic *pira (“slope”) 2.1 HH, which is likely related to the aforementioned words. The initial high pitch is likely irregular, and the Nuristani words likely have secondary vriddhi. |
| 沢 (sawa, “marsh, wetlands”) | *sapa, *sapara (“marsh, wetlands”) 2.1/2.2 HH/HL, 3.3 HLL < 2.2 HL, 3.3 HLL | *sáras (“lake, marsh, wetlands”) | N/A | Sanskrit सरस् (sáras, “lake, pond”), Ashkun sór (“lake”), Kamkata-viri súr (“lake”), Prasuni sur, súru (“lake”), Waigali sor (“lake”) (< Proto-Nuristani *sára 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *sáras (“marsh, water”) | *sélos (“marsh”) | *sáras > *sára, *sárara (variable generalization of oblique form and rhotacization) > *sapa, *sapara (loss of unaccented *r and insertion of epenthetic *p with (possible) metathesis) |
Yaeyama ぴぃないさーら (pïnaisāra) (< *pige-sawara, literally "beard waterfall") confirms the word belonged to the neuter s-stem class in Pre-Japonic. In this word, like "tōi", unaccented */r/ was lost, then an epenthetic */p/ was added in absence of any labial element. |
| 霜 (shimo, “frost”) | *simo (“frost”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *jimás (“frost, snow, winter”) | N/A | Sanskrit हिम (himá), Avestan 𐬰𐬌𐬌𐬃 (ziiā̊, “winter”), Ashkun žím, Kamkata-viri źím, zím, Prasuni zíma, Tregami źím, Waigali zim (< Proto-Nuristani *jimá 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *ȷ́ʰimás (“cold, frost, snow, winter”) | *ǵʰéyōm (“frost, snow, winter”) | *jimás > *ćimë́s (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *simo (*ć > *s and accented *ë́ > *o after a nasal) |
Unproblematic. The Proto-Indo-European palatovelars satemized in Japonic to yield */t͡s/ > */s/ (OJp. s may have been realized as ts according to Chinese-based spelling). |
| 白 (shira-, shiro), 白い (shiroi, “white”) | *sira, *siro (“white”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *ćwitrás (“white”) | white | Sanskrit श्वेत (śvetá), श्वित्र (śvitrá), Avestan 𐬯𐬞𐬀𐬉𐬙𐬀 (spaēta), Proto-Nuristani *crittá 2.4 LH (borrowed by Hindi चिट्टा (ciṭṭā, “bright, white”), चिट्टी (ciṭṭī, “type of bird”)) | *ćwaytás, *ćwitrás (“white”) | *ḱweyt- (“to shine”) | *ćwitrás > *cirá (*ć > *c and *tr > *r) > *sira, *siro (*ć > *s and variable irregular vowel change) |
The final vowel was clearly influenced by its antonym (see "kuro"). */-tr-/ > /-r-/, even in accented position, though there are other reflexes of this cluster. |
| 知る (shiru, “to know”) | *siru (“to know”) 2.I H- < 3.II L- | *jn̥náHti (“to know”) | can, know | Sanskrit जानाति (jānā́ti), Avestan 𐬰𐬁𐬥𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (zānaiti, “to know”), Kamkata-viri źaňë́- (“to know”), zařé- (“to know”), Prasuni äzne (“to know”) (< Proto-Nuristani *jānā́ti 3.II L-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *ȷ́ānáHti (“to know”) | *ǵn̥néh₃ti (“to know”) (root *ǵneh₃- (“to know”)) | *jn̥náHti > *ćn̥në̄́ti (devoicing, laryngeal loss and vowel centralization) > *sinúri (vocalization of syllabic consonant, *ë > *u, rhotacization) > *siru (nasal rhotacization and replacement by conclusive ending) |
Given the form 印 (shirushi, “sign”) (< *sirosi), the shift */-n-/ > /-r-/ is parallel to the Kata-vari form and also the entries for "kiru" and "korosu" above. The initial high pitch is probably due to the vocalization of the syllabic nasal. |
| 舌 (shita, “tongue”) | *sita (“tongue”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *dijwáH (“tongue”) | tongue | Sanskrit जिह्वा (jihvā́), जुहू (juhū́), Avestan 𐬵𐬌𐬰𐬎𐬎𐬁 (hizuuā), Ashkun žū́, Kamkata-viri díć, díz, Prasuni luzúk (< Proto-Nuristani *diȷ́ū́, *duȷ́ū́ 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *ȷ́iȷ́ʰwáH (“tongue”) | *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s (“tongue”) | *dijwáH > *tićwā́ (devoicing and laryngeal loss) > *ćitwā́ (metathesis) > *sita (*ć > *s and glide simplification) |
Most of the Indo-European branches made some irregular sound changes, and Japonic-Nuristani is no exception. Even within Indo-Iranian, the forms in Indo-Aryan and Iranian all disagree in the initial consonant, but Japonic-Nuristani must derive from the etymon *dijwáH. |
| それ (sore, “that one near you”) | *sə (“that”) 1.1 H(H) < 1.1 H | *sá (“that”) | that, the | Sanskrit स (sá), Avestan 𐬵𐬀 (ha), Ashkun së́, Tregami së́, Waigali së (< Proto-Nuristani *sá 1.1 H, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *sá (“he, that”) | *só (“this, that”) | *sá > *së́ (vowel centralization) > *sə (non-raised *ë > *ə) |
Has a distal reference in the Indo-Iranian forms. Proto-Indo-European had a suppletive alternant *tó-, preserved in set expressions like とにかく (tonikaku). Final -re comes from the genitive singular *-asyá found in demonstratives. |
| 全て (subete, “all”) | *sumpu (“to gather many things together”) (conjunctive *sumpete (“all”)) 2.I H-, 2.1=1.1 HH=H < 2.2 HL, 2.2=1.1 HL=H | *sárHwas (“all”) (participial *sárHwatwiH) | N/A | Sanskrit सर्व (sárva), Avestan 𐬵𐬀𐬎𐬭𐬎𐬎𐬀 (hauruua), Ashkun sëvā́k, Kamkata-viri sṹdi, súv, Prasuni sučók, Tregami sastok, Waigali söv (< Proto-Nuristani *súwwa (participial *suwwatwī́), cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *sárwas (“all”) | *solh₂- (“whole”) | *sárHwatwiH > *sárwHatwiH (laryngeal metathesis) > *së́rwHatwiH (vowel centralization) *sumpate (*ë > *u, cluster simplification and *wH > *mp) > *sumpete (vowel analogy on verb stems) |
This form, which is not found in Ryukyuan aside from possibly Okinawan, represents the effects of verbalization of an original adjective, also found in Kamviri (-te is cognate with -di < *-ti < *-twíH). Notable is the unconditioned change of *-Hw- and *-wH- > *-wH- as *-mp- (as in "kabe" and "kubi"). |
| 砂 (suna, “sand”) | *su, *suna (“sand”) 1.2 H(L), 2.1 HH < 2.2 HL, 2.2 HL | *ćyúkaH, *ćyuknáH (“sand”) | N/A | Sanskrit सिकता (síkatā), Old Persian 𐎰𐎡𐎣𐎠 (θ-i-k-a /θikā/, “rubble”), Ashkun šōňë́, Kamkata-viri ćǘ, ćiúi, Waigali šo (< Proto-Nuristani *ćyúkā 2.2 HL, *ćyúnā 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | N/A | N/A | *ćyúkaH, *ćyuknáH > *ćyúknaH, *ćyuknáH (analogical nasal insertion) > *ćyúnna, *ćyunná (cluster simplification and laryngeal loss) > *súna, *suná (*ć > *s and glide simplification) > *sũ, *suna (loss of unaccented *na with nasalization) > *su, *suna (denasalization) |
An early Central Asian substrate word that was borrowed into early Indo-Iranian, but postdating Proto-Indo-Iranian due to the fact that the correspondences are not regular. In Nuristani and Japonic, the preforms were *ćyúkaH (> *ćyúknaH) or *ćyuknáH. In Ashkun and Japonic, *ćyúknaH/*ćyuknáH regularly gave *syōňë́/*suna, and then a later development in Ashkun gave *syōňë́ > šōňë́, but the initial consonant of the Waigali form may have been borrowed from Ashkun or Dardic (expected **ćo). Compare also Mongolian шаар (šaar, “sediment”) (< Proto-Mongolic *sixar), which is possibly loaned from a more Sanskritic Pre-Japonic form, such as *ćikataH. |
| 焚く (taku, “to boil, burn”) | *taku (“to boil, burn”) 2.I H- | *dágʲ- (“to burn”, aor.) | day (if from *dʰogʷʰ-o-s) | Sanskrit दहति (dáhati, “to burn”), Avestan 𐬛𐬀𐬲𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (dažaiti, “to burn”) | *dʰáǰʰati (“to burn”) | *dʰegʷʰ- (“to burn”) | *dágʲ- > *ták- (devoicing and depalatalization) > *taku (addition of conclusive ending) |
Unproblematic. 焼く (yaku) is likely not related, as the evidence of */d-/ > /y-/ rests only on Yonaguni, which has been refuted on the basis that Chinese borrowings with y- have d-, such as 野菜 (dasai, “vegetables”). For the non-palatalization, see the entry for "korosu" above. |
| 魂 (tama, “soul, spirit”) | *tama (“soul, spirit”) 2.3 LL < 1.1 H | *tmā́ (“breath, soul, self”) | N/A | Sanskrit त्मन् (tmán), आत्मन् (ātmán), Kamkata-viri amú (“self”) (< Proto-Nuristani *āmmána 3.7 LHL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *HáHtmā (“breath, soul, self”) | *h₁eh₁t- (“to breathe”) | *tmā́ > *tamā́ (insertion of epenthetic *a) > *tama (word-final accented *ā́ > *a) |
Unproblematic. Japonic generalized the zero-grade nominative form. |
| 立つ (tatsu, “to stand”) | *tatu (“to stand”) 2.II L- | *staHt- (“to stand”, aor.) | stand | Sanskrit तिष्ठति (tíṣṭhati) (aor. अस्थात् (ásthāt), Avestan 𐬵𐬌𐬱𐬙𐬀𐬌𐬙𐬌 (hištaiti), Kamkata-viri úšta- (< Proto-Nuristani *úštāti 3.I H-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *stíštaHti (“to stand”) (aor. *HástaHt) | *steh₂- (“to stand”) | *staHt- > *tat- (laryngeal loss and loss of *s before a stop) > *tatu (addition of conclusive ending) |
Unproblematic. The retention of */t/ may have been due to the reduplicated form. Initial */s-/ > */∅-/ when preceding a stop consonant. |
| て (te, “conjunctive marker (in verbs)”) | *-te (“gerund marker (in verbs)”) 1.1 H | *-twíH (“gerund marker (in verbs))”) | N/A | Sanskrit -त्वी (-tvī́), Kamkata-viri -ti (“absolutive marker (in verbs)”) (< Proto-Nuristani *-twī́ 1.1 H, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *-twíH (“gerund marker (in verbs)”) | N/A | *-twíH > *-twī́ (laryngeal loss) > *-te (glide simplification and lowering of accented final *i) |
Seems to have been an Indo-Iranian innovation from an earlier form *-tu- |
| 戸 (to, “door”) | *to (“door”) 1.1 H(H) < 2.2 HL | *dwā́ram (“door”) | door | Sanskrit द्वार् (dvā́r), द्वार (dvā́ra), Avestan 𐬛𐬎𐬎𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬨 (duuarəm), Kamkata-viri dú, Tregami dǻr, Waigali dor (< Proto-Nuristani *dwára, *dwā́ra 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *dʰwā́r, *dʰwā́ram (“door”) | *dʰwṓr (“door”) | *dwā́ram > *dwóram (accented *ā́ > *ó) > *twóra (devoicing) > *túra (glide simplification) > *to (loss of unaccented *r and vowel monophthongization) |
Unproblematic. There are Peninsular Japonic cognates, such as Kara dol (/dor/, “door”). |
| 取る (toru, “to take”) | *toru (“to hold, support, take”) 2.II L- < 3.I H- | *dárati (“to hold, support”) | dare | Sanskrit धरति (dhárati, “to hold, support”), Avestan 𐬛𐬁𐬭𐬌𐬌𐬋 (dāriiō, “to hold, support”, 2sg.pres.inj.med.), Prasuni la- (“to have”) (< Proto-Nuristani *dárati 3.I H-, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *dʰárati (“to hold, support”) | *dʰer- (“to hold, support”) | *dárati > *të́rati (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *túrari (*ë > *u and rhotacization) > *toru (loss of unaccented *r and vowel monophthongization followed by root reanalysis and addition of conclusive form) |
Old Japanese and Old Okinawan had to1r- and tor- with the meaning "hold, support", a meaning that was lost in the modern reflexes. For the vowel changes, compare Nuristani, where an unaccented syllable-initial *á preceded by a consonant became *ó or *ú. It is notable that a final unaccented /r/ < */t/ was preserved, since only one rhotic consonant can syncopate within a word, and this may have caused the initial pitch to shift from high to low. |
| 遠い (tōi, “far”) | *təpə (“far”) 2.1 HH < 2.2 HL | *dúHras (“far”) | N/A | Sanskrit दूर (dūrá), Avestan 𐬛𐬏𐬭𐬁𐬝 (dūrāt̰, “from afar”), Ashkun sëdú, Kamkata-viri badǘř, badiúř, Tregami sudú, Waigali südi (< Proto-Nuristani *dū́ra 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *duHrás (“far”) | *dweh₂- (“to move away”) | *dúHras > *tū́rës (devoicing, laryngeal loss and vowel centralization) > *të́rë (Arisaka's law) > *təpə (non-raised *ë > *ə, loss of unaccented *r and insertion of epenthetic *p) |
Compare also Old Japanese woti and woto2 "distant", which imply *wotəy and may be directly related to the Kamkata-vari forms. In this word, like "sawa", unaccented */-r-/ > */-∅-/ > epenthetic */-p-/. However, the epenthetic labial does not appear in the Old Japanese forms mentioned before. |
| 強い (tsuyoi, “strong, powerful”) | *tiyo, *tuyo (“strong, powerful”) 2.3 LL < 2.4 LH | *tuHyás (“strong, powerful”) | thousand, thumb | Sanskrit तूय (tū́ya) | *túHyas, *tuHyás (“strong, powerful”) | *tewh₂- (“to swell, be strong”) | *tuHyás > *tūyë́ (laryngeal loss and vowel centralization) > *tūyo (irregular vowel change for **tūyu) > *tiyo, *tuyo (dialectal change of *ū) |
Japanese and Ryukyuan apparently agree on word-final accent, rather than initial accent from Sanskrit, probably a conservatism from *-yós. The final vowel may have been influenced by words like "kiyoi". |
| 鼓 (tsuzumi, “drum”) | *tuntumi (“drum”) 3.4 LLL < 3.5 LLH | *dundumíš (“drum”) | N/A | Sanskrit दुन्दुभि (dundubhí) | *d(ʰ)und(ʰ)ubʰíš, *d(ʰ)und(ʰ)umíš (“drum”) | N/A | *dundumíš > *tuntumi (devoicing) |
The word, common only to Sanskrit and Japonic, must have been a onomatopoeic substrate word. See Paolo Maria Rossi's Áhir budhníyaḥ and bhūmidundubhiḥ: The serpent of the deep and the earth-drum. A hypothesis of etymological and/or cultural connections, who highlights the interchange of -bh- and -m- in substrate loanwords in Indo-Iranian. |
| 内 (uchi, “between, inside, within”) | *utuy (“between, inside, within”) 2.1 HH < 3.7 LHL | *Hn̥tári (“between, inside, within”) | under | Sanskrit अन्तर् (antár), अन्तर (ántara), Avestan 𐬀𐬧𐬙𐬀𐬭𐬆 (aṇtarə), 𐬀𐬧𐬙𐬀𐬭𐬀 (aṇtara), Ashkun otë, Kamkata-viri atë́, atú, Prasuni ti-, tu-, Waigali ëter (< Proto-Nuristani *ãtári 3.7 LHL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Hantár (“between, inside, within”) | *h₁entér (“between, inside, within”) | *Hn̥tári > *Hn̥të́ri (vowel centralization) > *n̥të́ri (laryngeal loss) > *n̥túri (*ë > *u) > *utúri (vocalization of syllabic consonant) > *utuy (loss of unaccented *r) |
Old Japanese had a combining form utu-. For the change of the initial syllable, see "chikai". The irregular high pitch may be due to analogy with *upa- (< *úpa) and *upay (< *upári). |
| 腕 (ude, “arm”) | *untay (“arm”) (dialectal *unsay, *unray) 2.3 LL < 3.5 LLH | *Hungatrám (“arm (lit. something that bends or curves)”) | ankle | Sanskrit अङ्ग (áṅga, “limb”), Ashkun uṅtró (“arm”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ungatraká 4.6 LLLH, cited in Turner's A Comparative Dictionary of Indo-Aryan Languages) | *Hángam (“limb”) + *-tram (“instrumental noun suffix”) | *h₂eng- (“bend, curve”) + *-trom (“instrumental noun suffix”) | *Hungatrám > *Hunkëtrám (devoicing and vowel centralization) > *unkëtrá (laryngeal loss) > *unkëćá, *unkërá, *unkëtá (dialectal reflexes of *-tr-) > *unsay, *unray, *untay (*ć > *s, syncope of medial vowel, cluster simplification and irregular addition of final *-y) |
A common Japonic and Nuristani lexical innovation, alongside an irregular sound shift from *a to *u. The final *-y was probably taken from unrelated *tay (“hand”). Compare also dialectal Japanese 腕 (ure, uze) (Robbeets 2005), implying differing developments of the sequence */-tr-/. |
| 上 (ue, “above, over”) | *upay (“above, over”) 2.1 HH < 3.7 LHL | *upári (“above, over”) | over | Sanskrit उपरि (upári), Avestan 𐬎𐬞𐬀𐬌𐬭𐬌 (upairi), Waigali vëri (< Proto-Nuristani *upári 3.7 LHL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *upári (“above, over”) | *upér (“above, over”) | *upári > *upay (loss of unaccented *r) |
Unproblematic. See the entry on "uwa". For the accent, see "uchi". |
| 初 (ui, “first”) | *upi (“ancient, old”) 2.3/2.4 LL/LH < 3.7 LHL | *pr̥Hwíyas (“first”) | fore | Sanskrit पूर्व (pū́rva), Avestan 𐬞𐬀𐬊𐬎𐬭𐬎𐬎𐬌𐬌𐬋 (paouruuiiō), Ashkun páu (“last year”), Kamkata-viri pū́, púve (“last year”), Waigali pöv (“last year”) (< Proto-Nuristani *puwwá 2.4 LH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *pr̥Hwíyas (“ancient, old”) | *preh₂- (“before, front”) | *pr̥Hwíyas > *pr̥wHíya (laryngeal metathesis) > *pupi (glide simplification, vocalization of syllabic consonant, *wH > *mp followed by irregular loss of nasal) > *upi (loss of unaccented *p before *p) |
With irregular loss of the medial nasal, which is still found in 初 (ubu). |
| 牛 (ushi, “bull, cow, ox”) | *usi (“bull, cow, ox”) 2.1 HH < 2.4 LH | *ukšā́ (“bull, ox”) | ox | Sanskrit उक्षन् (ukṣán), Avestan 𐬎𐬑𐬱𐬁𐬥 (uxšān) | *(H)ukšā́ (“bull, ox”) | *uksḗn (“bull, ox”) | *ukšā́ > *ukšín (generalization of oblique stem) > *ućín (*kš before a high vowel > *ć) > *usi (*ć > *s) |
The Pre-Japonic stem was generalized from the oblique form. |
| 上 (uwa, “above, up”) | *upa (“above, up”) 2.1 HH < 2.2 HL | *úpa (“above, up”) | up | Sanskrit उप (úpa), Avestan 𐬎𐬞𐬀- (upa-), Ashkun o (“up”), Kamkata-viri ú (“up”), Waigali o (“up”) (< Proto-Nuristani *úpa 2.2 HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *úpa (“above, up”) | *upó (“below, under”) | *úpa > *upa (no change) |
Unproblematic. See the entry on "ue". Semantic shift to "above, up" is a common Indo-Iranian innovation. For the accent, see "uchi". |
| 鶉 (uzura, “quail”) | *untura (“quail”) 3.4 LLL < 3.5 LLH | *wr̥taráH (“quail”) | N/A | Sanskrit वर्तिका (vártikā), वर्तक (vartaka), Ashkun uvřë́, Kamkata-viri uřë́, Prasuni užū, Waigali ubë (< Proto-Nuristani *wr̥tarā́ 3.5 LLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *wart-, *wr̥t- (“quail”) | *wort- (“quail”) | *wr̥taráH > *wr̥tërā́ (laryngeal loss and vowel centralization) > *untura (*ë > *u and nasal vocalization of syllabic consonant) |
There is a Proto-Turkic *bïldur-, *buldïr-, probably a borrowing from Pre-Japonic. The nasal is probably a development of word-initial *wr̥t-. |
| Old Japanese 男 (wo, “male, man”) | *wo (“male, man”) 1.3 L(H) < 2.2 HL | *ŕ̥šā (“male, man”) | N/A | Sanskrit वृषन् (vṛ́ṣan), Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬱𐬥𐬀 (varəšna), Ashkun aṣë́ (“bull”), Kamkata-viri aṣë́, aṣé (“bull”), Waigali aṣe (“bull”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ŕ̥šuba 3.3 HLL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *(w)ŕ̥šā (“bull, male, man”) | *wérsēn (“male animal, man”) | *ŕ̥šā > *úra (vocalization of syllabic consonant and rhotacization) > *wo (loss of unaccented *r and vowel monophthongization) |
Unproblematic. Related to Japanese 猪 (i, “boar”) (< *wr̥šníš), Proto-Ryukyuan *uwa (“pig”) (< *r̥šubás). |
| Miyako 豚 (wā), Okinawan 豚 ('wā), Yaeyama 豚 (ō), Yonaguni 豚 (wā, “pig”) | *upa (“boar, pig”) 2.4a LH < 3.5 LLH | *r̥šubás (“male animal”) | N/A | Sanskrit वृषन् (vṛ́ṣan), Avestan 𐬬𐬀𐬭𐬆𐬱𐬥𐬀 (varəšna), Ashkun aṣë́ (“bull”), Kamkata-viri aṣë́, aṣé (“bull”), Waigali aṣe (“bull”) (< Proto-Nuristani *ŕ̥šuba 3.3 HLL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *(w)r̥šabʰás (“male animal”) | *wérsēn (“male animal, man”) | *r̥šubás > *r̥šupás (devoicing) > *urupá (vocalization of syllabic consonant and rhotacization) > *upa (loss of unaccented *r) |
Related to Japanese 猪 (i, “boar”) (< *wr̥šníš), Old Japanese 男 (wo, “male, man”) (< *ŕ̥šā). The original meaning was "male animal", later shifting to "boar" and then to "pig". |
| 大和 (Yamato, “Japan, Yamato”) | *Yamatə (“Yamato”) 3.5 LLH < 2.4=2.2 LH=HL | *YamHá-stáHnam (“place of Yama”) | N/A | Kamkata-viri Imréto (“place of Imra”) (< Proto-Nuristani *Yamarā́ya-stā́na 4.11=2.2 LLHL=HL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Yámas (“Yama”) + *stáHnam (“place”) | *Yémos (“first man (mythology)”) + *steh₂- (“to stand”) | *YamHá-stáHnam > *Yamá-të́na (laryngeal loss, loss of *s before a stop and vowel centralization) > *Yama-tənə (non-raised *ë > *ə) > *Yamatə̃ (loss of unaccented *na with nasalization) > *Yamatə (denasalization) |
The original ethnonym of the Japanese. While clearly a compound, there are many disagreements about the exact components, but this one has parallels in Nuristani, if not entirely cognate. |
| Miyako やㇲ゙ぃ (yaẓï, “husband's brother's wife”) | *yari (“husband's brother's wife”) 2.x < 2.4 LH | *HyāntríH (“husband's brother's wife”) | N/A | Sanskrit यातृ (yā́tṛ), Persian جاری (jâri), Kamkata-viri yarí, Prasuni yirí, irí, Waigali yäri (< Proto-Nuristani *yātarikā́ 4.6 LLLH, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *HyáHtā (“husband's brother's wife”) | *h₁yenh₂tēr (“husband's brother's wife”) | *HyāntríH > *yantrī́ (laryngeal loss) > *yanri (cluster simplification) > *yari (nasal rhotacization) |
Nevskiy gives yazï, in which the subscripted letter is distinct from з, which typically has sibilant cognates in Japanese. A parallel can be drawn with 涎ㇲ゙ぃ (yudaẓï, “drooling”) (< *yodari) and 涎 (yodare, “drool”). Interestingly, Miyako is the only Japonic language where a reflex of this word is found (from an etymon with vṛddhi), and the phonetic development of */-tr-/ > */-r-/, even in accent position, meant that the nasal was also absorbed. |
| 黄泉 (Yomi, “land of the dead (in Shinto)”) | *Yəməy (“land of the dead”) 2.3 LL | N/A | N/A | Sanskrit यमराज (yamarāja, “king Yama”), Ashkun Imrā́ (“Imra”), Kamkata-viri Imró (“Imra”), Yumrá (“Imra”), Waigali Yëmërä (“Imra”) (< Proto-Nuristani *Yamarā́ya 4.11 LLHL, cited in Strand's Nuristani Etymological Lexicon) | *Yámas (“Yama”) + *Hrā́ȷ́ā (“king”) | *Yémos (“first man (mythology)”) + *h₃rḗǵs (“king”) | Yama-rāja > *Yama-rāya (Middle Indo-Aryan change of j > y) > *Yamə-rāyə (vowel weakening) > *Yəməyə (Arisaka's law and loss of initial *r) > *Yəməy (syncope of final *ə) |
This does not constitute an inherited relationship, as both Japonic and Nuristani terms are borrowings ultimately from Sanskrit, since the change *ȷ́ > y is typical of Northwestern Indo-Aryan (Halfmann's Nuristani Theonyms in Light of Historical Phonology). It was borrowed into Japonic (since medial *s < *ȷ́ is expected if inherited) via early Silk Road intermediaries from a Northwestern Middle Indo-Aryan source, where it was also loaned into Proto-Nuristani. |