Appendix:Latin Swadesh list
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This is a Swadesh list of words in Latin, compared with definitions in English.
Presentation[edit]
- For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list.
American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Starting in 1950 with 165 meanings, his list grew to 215 in 1952, which was so expansive that many languages lacked native vocabulary for some terms. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971.
List[edit]
| No. | English | Latin latina |
Classical script |
IPA pronunciation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | I | egō | ego | ˈɛ.ɡɔː |
| 2 | you (singular) | tū | tv | t̪uː |
| 3 | he | is (m.), ea (f.), id (n.) | is, ea, id | is̠, ˈe.a, id̪ |
| 4 | we | nōs | nos | nɔːs̠ |
| 5 | you (plural) | vōs | vos | wɔːs̠ |
| 6 | they | eī, iī (m.), eae (f.), ea (n.) | ei, ii, eae, ea | ˈe.iː/iː, ˈe.ae̞̯, ˈe.a |
| 7 | this | hic (m.), haec (f.), hoc (n.) | hic, haec, hoc | hik, hae̞̯k, hɔk |
| 8 | that | ille (m.), illa (f.), illud (n.) | ille, illa, illvd | ˈil.lɛ, ˈil.la, ˈil.lud̪ |
| 9 | here | hīc | hic | hiːk |
| 10 | there | illīc, ibi | illic, ibi | ˈil.liːk, ˈi.bi |
| 11 | who | quis (m.), quae (f.) | qvis, qvae | kʷis̠, kʷae̞̯ |
| 12 | what | quid | qvid | kʷid̪ |
| 13 | where | ubi | vbi | ˈu.bi |
| 14 | when | cum, quandō | cvm, qvando | kũ, ˈkʷan̪.d̪ɔː |
| 15 | how | quōmodo | qvomodo | ˈkʷɔː.mɔ.d̪ɔ(ː) |
| 16 | not | nōn, nē | non, ne | nɔːn, nɛː |
| 17 | all | omnēs (mf.), omnia (n.) | omnes, omnia | ˈɔm.nɛːs̠, ˈɔm.ni.a |
| 18 | many | multī (m.), multae (f.), multa (n.) | mvlti, mvltae, mvlta | ˈmul.t̪iː, ˈmul.t̪ae̞̯, ˈmul.t̪a |
| 19 | some | aliquī (m.), aliqua (f.), aliquod (n.) | aliqvi, aliqva, aliqvod | ˈa.li.kʷiː, ˈa.li.kʷa, ˈa.li.kʷɔd̪ |
| 20 | few | paucī (m.), paucae (f.), pauca (n.) | pavci, pavcae, pavca | ˈpau̯.kiː, ˈpau̯.kae̞̯, ˈpau̯.ka |
| 21 | other | alter, alius | alter, alivs | ˈal.t̪ɛr, ˈa.li.us̠ |
| 22 | one | ūnus | vnvs | ˈuː.nus̠ |
| 23 | two | duo | dvo | ˈd̪u.ɔ |
| 24 | three | trēs | tres | t̪rɛːs̠ |
| 25 | four | quattuor | qvattvor | ˈkʷat̪.t̪u.ɔr |
| 26 | five | quīnque | qvinqve | ˈkʷiːŋ.kʷɛ |
| 27 | big | magnus | magnvs | ˈmaŋ.nus̠ |
| 28 | long | longus | longvs | ˈlɔŋ.ɡus̠ |
| 29 | wide | lātus | latvs | ˈlaː.t̪us̠ |
| 30 | thick | crassus | crassvs | ˈkras̠.s̠us̠ |
| 31 | heavy | gravis | gravis | ˈɡra.wis̠ |
| 32 | small | parvus | parvvs | ˈpar.wus̠ |
| 33 | short | brevis | brevis | ˈbrɛ.wis̠ |
| 34 | narrow | angustus | angvstvs | aŋˈɡus̠.t̪us̠ |
| 35 | thin | gracilis, tenuis | gracilis, tenvis | ˈɡra.ki.lis̠, ˈt̪ɛ.nu.is̠ |
| 36 | woman | fēmina, mulier | femina, mvlier | ˈfɛː.mi.na, ˈmu.li.ɛr |
| 37 | man (adult male) | vir | vir | wir |
| 38 | man (human being) | homō | homo | ˈhɔ.mɔː |
| 39 | child | puer | pver | ˈpu.ɛr |
| 40 | wife | uxor, mulier | vxor, mvlier | ˈuk.s̠ɔr, ˈmu.li.ɛr |
| 41 | husband | marītus | maritvs | maˈriː.t̪us̠ |
| 42 | mother | māter | mater | ˈmaː.t̪ɛr |
| 43 | father | pater | pater | ˈpa.t̪ɛ̞r |
| 44 | animal | animal | animal | ˈa.ni.mal |
| 45 | fish | piscis | piscis | ˈpis̠.kis̠ |
| 46 | bird | avis | avis | ˈa.wis̠ |
| 47 | dog | canis | canis | ˈka.nis̠ |
| 48 | louse | pēdis (pēdiculus) | pedis (pedicvlvs) | ˈpɛː.d̪is̠, pɛːˈd̪i.ku.lus̠ |
| 49 | snake | serpēns, anguis | serpens, angvis | ˈs̠ɛr.pẽːs̠, ˈaŋ.ɡʷis̠ |
| 50 | worm | vermis | vermis | ˈwɛr.mis̠ |
| 51 | tree | arbor | arbor | ˈar.bɔr |
| 52 | forest | silva | silva | ˈs̠il.wa |
| 53 | stick | baculum, pālus | bacvlvm, palvs | ˈba.ku.lũ, ˈpaː.lus̠ |
| 54 | fruit | frūctus | frvctvs | ˈfruːk.t̪us̠ |
| 55 | seed | sēmen | semen | ˈs̠ɛː.mɛn |
| 56 | leaf | folium | folivm | ˈfɔ.li.ũ |
| 57 | root | rādīx | radix | ˈraː.d̪iːks̠ |
| 58 | bark (of a tree) | cortex | cortex | ˈkɔr.t̪ɛks̠ |
| 59 | flower | flōs | flos | flɔːs̠ |
| 60 | grass | herba | herba | ˈhɛr.ba |
| 61 | rope | fūnis, restis | fvnis, restis | ˈfuː.nis̠, ˈrɛs̠.t̪is̠ |
| 62 | skin | cutis | cvtis | ˈku.t̪is̠ |
| 63 | meat | carō | caro | ˈka.rɔː |
| 64 | blood | sanguis | sangvis | ˈs̠aŋ.ɡʷis̠ |
| 65 | bone | os | os | ɔs̠ |
| 66 | fat (noun) | adeps, pinguāmen | adeps, pingvamen | ˈa.d̪ɛps̠, piŋˈɡʷaː.mɛn |
| 67 | egg | ōvum | ovvm | ˈɔː.wũ |
| 68 | horn | cornū | cornv | ˈkɔr.nuː |
| 69 | tail | cauda | cavda | ˈkau̯.d̪a |
| 70 | feather | penna | penna | ˈpɛn.na |
| 71 | hair | pilus | pilvs | ˈpi.lus̠ |
| 72 | head | caput | capvt | ˈka.put̪ |
| 73 | ear | auris | avris | ˈau̯.ris̠ |
| 74 | eye | oculus | ocvlvs | ˈɔ.ku.lus̠ |
| 75 | nose | nāsus, nāris | nasvs, naris | ˈnaː.s̠us̠, ˈnaː.ris̠ |
| 76 | mouth | ōs | os | ɔːs̠ |
| 77 | tooth | dēns | dens | d̪ẽːs̠ |
| 78 | tongue (organ) | lingua | lingva | ˈliŋ.ɡʷa |
| 79 | fingernail | unguis | vngvis | ˈuŋ.ɡʷis̠ |
| 80 | foot | pēs | pes | pɛːs̠ |
| 81 | leg | crūs | crvs | kruːs̠ |
| 82 | knee | genū | genv | ˈɡɛ.nuː |
| 83 | hand | manus | manvs | ˈma.nus̠ |
| 84 | wing | āla | ala | ˈaː.la |
| 85 | belly | venter, abdōmen | venter, abdomen | ˈwɛn̪.t̪ɛr, abˈd̪ɔː.mɛn |
| 86 | guts | vīscera | viscera | ˈwiːs̠.kɛ.ra |
| 87 | neck | cervīx | cervix | ˈkɛr.wiːks̠ |
| 88 | back | dorsum, tergum | dorsvm, tergvm | ˈd̪ɔr.s̠ũ, ˈt̪ɛr.ɡũ |
| 89 | breast | mamma | mamma | ˈmam.ma |
| 90 | heart | cor | cor | kɔr |
| 91 | liver | iecur | iecvr | ˈjɛ.kur |
| 92 | to drink | bibō | bibo | ˈbi.bɔː |
| 93 | to eat | edō | edo | ˈɛ.d̪ɔː |
| 94 | to bite | mordeō | mordeo | ˈmɔr.d̪e.ɔː |
| 95 | to suck | sūgō | svgo | ˈs̠uː.ɡɔː |
| 96 | to spit | spuō | spvo | ˈs̠pu.ɔː |
| 97 | to vomit | vomō | vomo | ˈwɔ.mɔː |
| 98 | to blow | īnflō | inflo | ˈĩː.flɔː |
| 99 | to breathe | respīrō | respiro | rɛˈs̠piː.rɔː |
| 100 | to laugh | rīdeō | rideo | ˈriː.d̪e.ɔː |
| 101 | to see | videō | video | ˈwi.d̪e.ɔː |
| 102 | to hear | audiō | avdio | ˈau̯.d̪i.ɔː |
| 103 | to know | sciō | scio | ˈs̠ki.ɔː |
| 104 | to think | cōgitō, putō, exīstimō | cogito, pvto, existimo | ˈkɔː.ɡi.t̪ɔː, ˈpu.t̪ɔː, ɛkˈs̠iːs̠.t̪i.mɔː |
| 105 | to smell | olfaciō | olfacio | ɔlˈfa.ki.ɔː |
| 106 | to fear | timeō | timeo | ˈt̪i.me.ɔː |
| 107 | to sleep | dormiō | dormio | ˈd̪ɔr.mi.ɔː |
| 108 | to live | vīvō | vivo | ˈwiː.wɔː |
| 109 | to die | morior | morior | ˈmɔ.ri.ɔr |
| 110 | to kill | necō | neco | ˈnɛ.kɔː |
| 111 | to fight | lū̆ctor, pugnō | lvctor, pvgno | ˈlu(ː)k.t̪ɔr, ˈpuŋ.nɔː |
| 112 | to hunt | vēnor | venor | ˈwɛː.nɔr |
| 113 | to hit | pellō, pulsō | pello, pvlso | ˈpɛl.lɔː, ˈpul.s̠ɔː |
| 114 | to cut | secō, caedō | seco, caedo | ˈs̠ɛ.kɔː, ˈkae̞̯.d̪ɔː |
| 115 | to split | dīvidō, scindō | divido, scindo | ˈd̪iː.wi.d̪ɔː, ˈs̠kin̪.d̪ɔː |
| 116 | to stab | pungō | pvngo | ˈpuŋ.ɡɔː |
| 117 | to scratch | scabō, rādō | scabo, rado | ˈs̠ka.bɔː, ˈraː.d̪ɔː |
| 118 | to dig | fodiō | fodio | ˈfɔ.d̪i.ɔː |
| 119 | to swim | nō, natō | no, nato | nɔː, ˈna.t̪ɔː |
| 120 | to fly | volō | volo | ˈwɔ.lɔː |
| 121 | to walk | ambulō | ambvlo | ˈam.bu.lɔː |
| 122 | to come | veniō | venio | ˈwɛ.ni.ɔː |
| 123 | to lie (as in a bed) | cubō, iaceō | cvbo, iaceo | ˈku.bɔː, ˈja.ke.ɔː |
| 124 | to sit | sedeō | sedeo | ˈs̠ɛ.d̪e.ɔː |
| 125 | to stand | stō | sto | s̠t̪ɔː |
| 126 | to turn (intransitive) | vertō | verto | ˈwɛr.t̪ɔː |
| 127 | to fall | cadō | cado | ˈka.d̪ɔː |
| 128 | to give | dō | do | d̪ɔː |
| 129 | to hold | teneō | teneo | ˈt̪ɛ.ne.ɔː |
| 130 | to squeeze | exprimō | exprimo | ˈɛks̠.pri.mɔː |
| 131 | to rub | fricō, terō | frico, tero | ˈfri.kɔː, ˈt̪ɛ.rɔː |
| 132 | to wash | lavō | lavo | ˈla.wɔː |
| 133 | to wipe | tergeō | tergeo | ˈt̪ɛr.ɡe.ɔː |
| 134 | to pull | trahō | traho | ˈt̪ra.(ɦ)ɔː |
| 135 | to push | pellō | pello | ˈpɛl.lɔː |
| 136 | to throw | iaciō | iacio | ˈja.ki.ɔː |
| 137 | to tie | ligō | ligo | ˈli.ɡɔː |
| 138 | to sew | cōnsuō | consvo | ˈkõː.s̠u.ɔː |
| 139 | to count | computō, numerō | compvto, nvmero | ˈkɔm.pu.t̪ɔː, ˈnu.mɛ.rɔː |
| 140 | to say | dīcō | dico | ˈd̪iː.kɔː |
| 141 | to sing | canō | cano | ˈka.nɔː |
| 142 | to play | lūdō | lvdo | ˈluː.d̪ɔː |
| 143 | to float | flūctuō, flūitō | flvctvo, flvito | ˈfluːk.t̪u.ɔː, ˈflu.i.t̪ɔː |
| 144 | to flow | fluō | flvo | ˈflu.ɔː |
| 145 | to freeze | gelō | gelo | ˈɡɛ.lɔː |
| 146 | to swell | augeō, tumeō | avgeo, tvmeo | ˈau̯.ɡe.ɔː, ˈt̪u.me.ɔː |
| 147 | sun | sōl | sol | s̠ɔːl |
| 148 | moon | lūna | lvna | ˈluː.na |
| 149 | star | stēlla | stella | ˈs̠t̪ɛːl.la |
| 150 | water | aqua | aqva | ˈa.kʷa |
| 151 | rain | pluvia | plvvia | ˈplu.wi.a |
| 152 | river | flūmen, fluvius, amnis | flvmen, flvvivs, amnis | ˈfluː.mɛn, ˈflu.wi.us̠, ˈam.nis̠ |
| 153 | lake | lacus | lacvs | ˈla.kus̠ |
| 154 | sea | mare | mare | ˈma.rɛ |
| 155 | salt | sāl | sal | s̠aːl |
| 156 | stone | saxum, lapis, petra | saxvm, lapis, petra | ˈs̠ak.s̠ũ, ˈla.pis̠, ˈpɛ.t̪ra |
| 157 | sand | harēna | harena | häˈrɛː.na |
| 158 | dust | pulvis | pvlvis | ˈpul.wis̠ |
| 159 | earth | humus, terra, ager | hvmvs, terra, ager | ˈhu.mus̠, ˈtɛr.ra, ˈa.ɡɛr |
| 160 | cloud | nūbēs, nebula | nvbes, nebvla | ˈnuː.bɛːs̠, ˈnɛ.bu.la |
| 161 | fog | cālīgō, nebula, tenebrae | caligo, nebvla, tenebrae | kaːˈliː.ɡɔː, ˈnɛ.bu.la, ˈt̪ɛ.nɛ.brae̞̯ |
| 162 | sky | caelum | caelvm | ˈkae̞̯.lũ |
| 163 | wind | ventus | ventvs | ˈwɛn̪.t̪us̠ |
| 164 | snow | nix | nix | niks̠ |
| 165 | ice | gelū | gelv | ˈɡɛ.luː |
| 166 | smoke | fūmus | fvmvs | ˈfuː.mus̠ |
| 167 | fire | ignis | ignis | ˈiŋ.nis̠ |
| 168 | ash | cinis | cinis | ˈki.nis̠ |
| 169 | to burn | ūrō, flammō | vro, flammo | ˈuː.rɔː, ˈflam.mɔː |
| 170 | road | via | via | ˈwi.a |
| 171 | mountain | mōns | mons | mõːs̠ |
| 172 | red | ruber, rūfus | rvber, rvfvs | ˈru.bɛr, ˈruː.fus̠ |
| 173 | green | viridis | viridis | ˈwi.ri.d̪is̠ |
| 174 | yellow | croceus, flāvus | crocevs, flavvs | ˈkrɔ.ke.us̠, ˈflaː.wus̠ |
| 175 | white | albus, candidus | albvs, candidvs | ˈal.bus̠, ˈkan̪.d̪i.d̪us̠ |
| 176 | black | āter, niger | ater, niger | ˈaː.tɛr, ˈni.ɡɛr |
| 177 | night | nox | nox | nɔks̠ |
| 178 | day | diēs | dies | ˈdi.ɛːs̠ |
| 179 | year | annus | annvs | ˈan.nus̠ |
| 180 | warm | calidus | calidvs | ˈka.li.d̪us̠ |
| 181 | cold | frīgidus | frigidvs | ˈfriː.ɡi.d̪us̠ |
| 182 | full | plēnus | plenvs | ˈplɛː.nus̠ |
| 183 | new | novus | novvs | ˈnɔ.wus̠ |
| 184 | old | vetus | vetvs | ˈwɛ.t̪us̠ |
| 185 | good | bonus | bonvs | ˈbɔ.nus̠ |
| 186 | bad | malus | malvs | ˈma.lus̠ |
| 187 | rotten | putridus | pvtridvs | ˈpu.t̪ri.d̪us̠ |
| 188 | dirty | sordidus, immundus | sordidvs, immvndvs | ˈs̠ɔr.d̪i.d̪us̠, imˈmun̪.d̪us̠ |
| 189 | straight | rēctus | rectvs | ˈrɛːk.t̪us̠ |
| 190 | round | rotundus | rotvndvs | rɔˈt̪un̪.d̪us̠ |
| 191 | sharp (as a knife) | acūtus | acvtvs | aˈkuː.t̪us̠ |
| 192 | dull (as a knife) | hebes, retūsus | hebes, retvsvs | ˈhɛ.bɛs̠, rɛˈt̪uː.s̠us̠ |
| 193 | smooth | suāvis | svavis | s̠uˈaː.wis̠ |
| 194 | wet | ūmidus, aqueus | vmidvs, aqvevs | ˈuː.mi.d̪us̠, ˈa.kʷe.us̠ |
| 195 | dry | siccus | siccvs | ˈs̠ik.kus̠ |
| 196 | correct | rēctus | rectvs | ˈrɛːk.t̪us̠ |
| 197 | near | propinquus, proximus | propinqvvs, proximvs | prɔˈpiŋ.kus̠, ˈprɔk.s̠i.mus̠ |
| 198 | far | longus | longvs | ˈlɔŋ.ɡus̠ |
| 199 | right | dexter | dexter | ˈd̪ɛks̠.t̪ɛr |
| 200 | left | laevus, sinister | laevvs, sinister | ˈlae̞̯.wus̠, s̠iˈnis̠.t̪ɛr |
| 201 | at | ad, in | ad, in | ad, in |
| 202 | in | in | in | in |
| 203 | with | cum | cvm | kũ |
| 204 | and | et, -que | et, -qve | ɛt̪, -kʷɛ |
| 205 | if | sī | si | s̠iː |
| 206 | because | quod | qvod | kʷɔd̪ |
| 207 | name | nōmen | nomen | ˈnɔː.mɛn |